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Ottoman Empire |
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The ancestors of the Ottomans (Osmanli, Uthmanli) were Oghuz Turks who followed the victorious Seljuqs into Anatolia in the 11th century. The Ottoman state began as a Ghazi Kingdom based in old Bithynia, on the fringes of the Mongol dominated region of central Anatolia. As Ilkhante authority wanted, Ottoman power grew and successfully vanquishing other Ghazi domains, they became the new Power of the region. |
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With the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman empire, the Turkish Sultans abrogated to themselves the title of Caliph, thus inaugurating the final phase of the office. With the dissolution of the Ottoman State in early 20th century, the office of Caliph fell vacant, and has thus far not been revived. |
| The
Osmanli Dynasty ruled the Ottoman
Empire from 1281
to 1923,
beginning with Osman
I (not
counting his father, Ertuğrul), though the dynasty was not
proclaimed until 1383
when Murad
I
declared himself sultan. Before that the tribe/dynasty might have
been known as Söğüt but was renamed Osmanli in
honour of Osman. The sultan was the sole regent and government of the empire, at least officially. The sultan enjoyed many titles such as Sovereign of the House of Osman, Sultan of Sultans, Khan of Khans, Commander of the Faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the Lord of the Universe. Note that the first rulers never called themselves sultans, but rather beys. |
| The full style of the ruler was. since about 1500, Sultan Han N.N., Padishah, Hunkar, Hakan ul-Berreyn vel-Bahreyn. Padishah is pure Persian word for Great King, Hunkar is a contraction of Middle Persian Khudavendigar, orginally an epithet of semi-divine status, Hakan is the mongol style of the successors of Chinggiz Han, and ul-Berreyn vel-Bahreyn is Arabic al-Barrayn wa al-Bahrayn, meaning literally "of both lands and both seas". Sultan is an Aramaism in Arabic, orginally meaning "power", and only gradually being made into a style for styles. In the Ottoman system every close relative of the ruler, male and female, was styled Sultan. either before or after the name. |
| Osmanli Dynasty [title Bey (Chief)] |
| Othman I [Osman I Ghazi].....................1293 - 1324 (b.1256-d.1324) |
| Othman was born in 1256 and got the title bey (chief) from his father, Ertoğrül, as the ruler of the village of Söğüt in 1281.The birth of the empire originated with the conquest of the Turkish tribe of Eskenderum and the city of Eskişehir (Turkish for 'Old Town') in 1301-1303. With the fall of the Byzantine fort at Yenişehir ('New Town') the Turks where ready to launch a siege at the large Byzantine towns of Bursa and Nicaea (now İznik). Osman I died in 1324, but in some places, it is mentioned that Othman I died and ruled till 1326. Anyhow in 1326 the two cities fell. He was after his death given the title of ghazi (holy islamic warrior) by his successors. |
| Orkhan [Urchan]..............................1324 - 1360 (b.1278-d.1360) |
| Orhan conquered most of eastern Anatolia and took part of the political upheaval of the decaying Byzantine Empire by marrying Helen (Nilofer), the daughter of John VI Cantacuzenus the alienated guardian of Emperor John V Palaeologus. As the price of this still prestigious marriage, Orhan helped Cantacuzenus to overthrow John V and his regents. In 1354 Orhan's son, Suleiman Pasha (Süleyman Paşa), occupied Gallipoli (evacuated by its Greek population in the wake of an earthquake) and gave the Ottoman state a bridgehead into mainland Europe. |
| Sultan (from 1383) |
| Murad I Hüdavendiğar.........................1360 - Jun 1389 (b.1326-d.1389) |
| He established the Empire by building up a society and government in the newly conquered city of Adrianople (Edirne in Turkish) in 1362 and by expanding the realm in Europe, bringing most of the Balkan under Ottoman rule and forcing the Byzantine emperor to pay him tribute. A great palace was immediately built and in 1363 the Ottoman capital moved from Bursa to Edirne. It was Murad who established the former Osmanli tribe into an empire. He established the title of sultan in 1383 and the corps of the Janissaries and the devşirm recruiting system. He also organised the government of the Divan, the system of timars and timar-holders (timariots) and the military judge, the kaziasker. He also established the two provinces of Anadolu (Anatolia) and Rumili (Europe). Murad fought against the powerful emirate of Karamanid in Anatolia and against the Serbs, Bulgarians and Hungarians in Europe. His moves in the Balkans brought together a Christian coalition under the king of Hungary, but they were defeated at the Battle of Maritsa in 1363 (?) by Murad's capable second lieutenant Lalaşahin, the first governor (Beylerbey) of Rumili. In 1366 the Serbian king was forced to pay tribute to the Sultan and in 1385 Sofia fell to the Ottomans. Murad was assassinated by Milo Kobilic, a Serbian noble, during the Battle of Kosovo. See the conquests of Murad I. |
| Beyazid I Thunderbolt |
| [Bejazid I Yildirim].................Jun 1389 - 20 Jul 1402 (b.1347-d.1403) |
| In revenge for the assassination of Murad in the Battle of Kosovo, Beyazid massacred his Serb prisoners. Nevertheless, he was able to conclude a treaty with the Serb leader, Stephen Bulcovic, and granted Serbia considerable autonomy. In 1391 he laid siege to Constantinople. On the demand of the Byzantine emperor John V Palaeologus a new crusade was organized to defeat Beyazid. In 1396, the Christian allies, under the leadership of the Hungarian King and Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, was defeated in the Battle of Nicopolis. The siege of Constantinople lasted until 1398 when the Byzantines paid a considerable tribute to break the siege. In 1400, the Mongol warlord Timur Lenk had succeeded in rousing the local kingdoms that had been conquered by the Turks to join him in his attack on Beyazid. In the fateful Battle of Ankara, on July 20, 1402, Beyazid was captured by Timur and kept chained in a cage as a trophy. |
| Mohammed I [Mehmed I Çelebi] |
| Kirisci "the Executioner"..................1402 - 26 May 1421 with... |
| Following the defeat of sultan Beyazid I in 1402 by the Mongol warlord Timur Lenk. Around 1410 the three sons of Beyazid left alive after the Battle of Ankara ruled each half of the remaindants of the empire. The eldest son, Suleiman Çelebi, ruled nothern Greece, Bulgaria and Thrace. His brother, İsa Çelebi ruled Greece and the westernmost of Anatolia, however he was overthrown by the younger half-brother Mehmed Çelebi from his capitol in Bursa in 1404. Suleiman then accuired southern Greece as well and Mehmet ruled over Anatolia. Mehmet then sent his younger brother Mûsa across the Black Sea with a large army to conquer Suleiman. Mûsa won in Bulgaria in 1410 and Suleiman was forced to retreat south to Greece. Mûsa then proclaimed himself as sultan of the Ottoman Empire. Mehmed became furious and sent a small army over to Gallipoli where it was defeated. Mehmed later came to his senses and forced an allians with the Byzantine Empire. Three years later Mehmed sent over a new army. This time it was much stronger and defeated Mûsa in Kamerlu, Serbia. It was then easy for Mehmed I to overthrow his last brother in Greece and become the Ottoman sultan. |
| Isa (in Bursa)...............................1402 - 1406 and... |
| Suleiman [Suleyman](in Rumelia)..............1402 - 1410 followed by... |
| Musa.........................................1410 - 1413 |
| Murad II (1st time)......................May 1421 - 1444 (b.1404-d.1451) |
| Murad's reign was marked by the long war he fought against the Christians of the Balkans and the Turkish emirates in Anatolia. The open hostilities lasted for 25 years, from 1423 to 1448, first against Venice, the emirate of Karamanid, Serbia and Hungary. Karamanid was defeated in 1428 and Venice withdrew in 1432 following the defeat at the second Siege of Salonika in 1430. In the 1430s Murad captured huge terretories in the Balkans and could annex Serbia in 1439. In 1441 the Holy Roman Empire, Poland and Albania joined the Serbian-Hungarian coalition. Murad won the Battle of Varna in 1444 against Janos Hunyadi but lost the Battle of Jalowaz and was forced to abdicate. In 1446 he regained command at the interference of the Janissaries and could crush the Christian coalition at the second Battle of Kosovo (the first one took place in 1389). When the Balkan front was secured Murad turned east to defeat Timur Lenk's son, Shah Rokh, and the emirates of Karamanid and Çorum-Amasya. |
| Mohammed II the Conqueror |
| [Mehmed II Fatih] (1st time).............1444 - 1446 (b.1432-d.1481) |
| Murad II (2nd time)..........................1446 - 03 Feb 1451 (s.a) |
| Padishah (from 1453) |
| Mohammed II the Conqueror |
| [Mehmed II Fatih](2nd time).......03 Feb 1451 - 03 May 1481 (s.a) |
| Mehmed
brought an end to the Byzantine
Empire by capturing Constantinople
in 1453
and made it, the capital of the Ottoman Empire (during the
well-known Siege
of Constantinople), and other Byzantine cities left in Anatolia
and the Balkans.
The invasion of Constantinople and successful campaigns against
small kingdoms in the Balkans and Turkic territories in Anatolia
bestowed immense glory and prestige on the country and the Ottoman
State started to be recognized as an empire for the first time. As can be guessed from his successful campaign against Otranto in southern Italy and his adopting the title Roman Caesar (Kayser-i-Rüm), he was presumably trying to vitalize the Eastern Roman Empire. For a probably similar reason, he gathered Italian humanists and Greek scholars at his court, kept the Byzantine Church functioning, ordered the patriarch to translate the Christian faith into Turkish and called Gentile Bellini from Venice to paint his portrait. He is also recognized as the first sultan to codify criminal and constitutional law long before Suleyman the Magnificent (also "the Lawmaker") and he thus established the classical image of the autocratic Ottoman sultan (padishah). After the fall of Constantinople, he founded many universities and colleges in the city, some of which are still active. |
| Beyazid II [Bejazid II Wali]..........20 May 1481 - 25 Apr 1512 (b.1446-d.1512) |
| Bayezid
was born in Demotika in Thrace.
The son of Mehmed
II
the Conqueror. Throughout his reign, Bayezid engaged in numerous
campaigns to conquer the Venetian-held
despotate of Morea,
accurately defining this region as the key to future Ottoman naval
power in the Eastern Mediterranean.
The last of these wars ended in 1501 with Bayezid in control of
the main citadels of Mistra
and Monemvasia. Bayezid's overriding concern was the quarrel with his brother Cem, who claimed the throne and sought military backing from the Knights of St John in Rhodes. Eventually the Knights handed Cem over to Pope Clement VIII. The Pope thought of using Cem as a tool to drive the Turks out of Europe, but as the Papal Crusade failed to come to fruition, Cem was left to fester and die in a Neopolitan prison. Rebellions in the east, such as that of the Kizil Bash, plagued much of Bayezid's reign and were often backed by the Shah of Persia, Ismail, who was eager to promote Shi'ism to undermine the authority of the Ottoman state. Ottoman authority in Anatolia was indeed seriously threatened during this period, and at one point Bayezid's grand vizier, Ali Pasha, was killed in battle against rebels. On September 14, 1509, Constantinople was devastated by an earthquake. Bayezid's final years saw a succession battle between his sons Selim and Ahmed. Ahmed, the older of the two claiments had won a battle against the Karaman Turks and their Safavid allies in Asia Minor and now marched on Constantinople to exploit his triumph. Fearing for his safety, Selim staged a revolt in Thrace but was defeated by Bayezid and forced to flee to the Crimea (1511). At this point, Bayezid developed fears that Ahmed might in turn kill him to gain the throne and refused to allow his son to enter Constantinople. Selim returned from the Crimea and, with support from the Janissaries, defeated and killed Ahmed. Bayezid then abdicated the throne on April 25, 1512. He departed for retirement in his native Demotika, but he died along the way on 25th May 1512. |
| Caliph (from 1517) |
| Selim I the Grim [Selim I Yavuz]......25 Apr 1512 - 21 Sep 1520 (b.1467-d.1520) |
| He
succeeded in 1512
his father Beyazid
II, whom he dethroned, and whose death, following
immediately afterwards, gave rise to suspicions of Selim's
character, which were certainly justified. He signalized his
accession by putting his brothers and nephews to death; and gave
early proof of resolution by boldly cutting down before their
troops two officers who showed signs of insubordination. Selim
first defeated all opposition to his position, he killed many of
his advisories and even all but one of his sons! He established
control over the army. He extended Ottoman territory by placing Syria, Palestine, Egypt and the holy cities of Mecca and Medina under his control. After the invasion of the latter two cities, he announced himself to be the Caliph (in Arabic meaning "successor" of Mohammed); the "guardian of Islam", considered to be the chief civil and religious ruler of all Islam. After his return from his Egyptian campaign he was preparing an expedition against Rhodes when he was overtaken by sickness and died in the ninth year of his reign, near the very spot where he had attacked his father's troops, not far from Adrianople. He was about fifty-five years of age. He was bigoted, bloodthirsty and relentless, earning him the sobriquet "Selim the Cruel". (Though one Turkish historian praises his humanity for forbidding condemned persons to be cut up while still alive or roasted slowly before a fire.) At one time he was, with difficulty, dissuaded from ordering the complete extirpation of all the Christians in Turkey. His ambition was insatiable; he is said to have exclaimed when looking at a map that the whole world did not form a sovereignty vast enough for one monarch. His four months' victorious campaign against Persia was undertaken and successfully carried through contrary to the advice of his ministers, several of whom he executed for their opposition to his plans; and he achieved an enterprise which neither Genghis Khan nor Timur was able to carry out. It is said that he contemplated the conquest of India and that he was the first to conceive the idea of the Suez Canal. |
| Suleiman I Law-giver, The Magnificent |
| [Suleyman I Kanuni]...............21 Sep 1520 - 06 Sep 1566 (b.1494-d.1566) |
| He
was born at Trabzon, Turkey.
The Ottoman Empire reached its zenith and became a world
power during his reign. Although the empire continued to expand
one century after his death, this period was followed by a very
long decline. At the age of seven he was sent to study science, history, literature, theology, and military techniques in Istanbul. His early experience of government was to be as governor of several provinces.Suleyman began a series of military conquests, starting with the captured of Belgrade in 1521. In 1522 he captured Rhodes after a siege, allowing the Knights of St. John to evacuate to Malta. On August 29, 1526 Suleyman defeated Louis II of Hungary at the battle of Mohacs, occupying most of Hungary before giving it to John Z polya, prince of Transylvania to govern. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and his brother Ferdinand Archduke of Austria retook Hungary, in response to which Suleyman twice tried to re-invade, twice being beaten by the weather after reaching Vienna in 1529 and 1532. In 1533 a treaty was signed with Ferdinand, splitting Hungary between the Hapsburgs and Zapolya. On Zapolya's death, Ferdinand was left the Hungarian territories, prompting Suleyman to annex Hungary, resulting in several struggles and peace treaties restoring the status-quo. In the following two decades, huge territories of North Africa west to Morocco and all Middle East north to Persia were annexed. This quick expansion was associated with naval dominance for a short period in the Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea and Persian Gulf. In 1562 he conquered Transylvania. While he may have been seen as dangerous to the outside world, he was known as a fair ruler within the empire, fought corruption, and was a great patron of artists and philosophers. He was also noted as one of the greatest Islamic poets, and an accomplished goldsmith. He earned his nickname the Lawmaker from his complete reconstruction of the Ottoman law system. The laws that he gathered covered almost every aspect of life at the time. At the time of his death, the major Muslim cities (Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, and Baghdad), many Balkan provinces up to todays Austria, and most of North Africa were under the control of the empire. Suleyman broke with convention by raising two slaves to positions of power. One, Ibrahim Pasha (İbrahim Paşa) was to rise to become Grand Vizier for 13 years. The other, a captured Ukrainian and daughter of a Russian Orthodox priest, Aleksandra Lisowska (also known by several other names including Khourrem [Hurrem]), was to rise through the ranks of the Harem to become his favorite wife, to the surprise of the empire and the international community. By her he had one daughter, Mihrimar, and the sons Mehmed (who died young), Selim, Bayezid and Cihangir (born physically disabled). In power struggles apparently instigated by Khourrem, Suleyman had İbrahim (a supporter of Suleyman's firstborn son Mustafa) murdered and replaced with her son-in-law Rustem Pasha (Rustem Paşa). Later, apparently believing that his popularity with the army threatened his own position, he had Mustafa strangled too, leaving the way clear for one of Khourrem's sons. In anticipation of Suleyman's death which, under the ruling practice of fratricide would also bring death to either Selim or Bayezid, in 1559 the brothers engaged in a series of succession battles, resulting in Suleyman ordering the death of Bayezid, who was killed on September 25 1561, after he was returned to the empire by the Shah after fleeing to Iran. Therefore it was Selim who eventually succeeded Suleyman, though he was to take little interest in government. Suleyman died in 1566, the night before victory at the battle of Szigetvar, in Hungary. He is buried in a mausoleum with his wife Khourrem at the Suleymaniye Mosque. |
| Selim II the Sot |
| [Selim II Sarhosh Mest]...........06 Sep 1566 - 12 Sep 1574 (b.1524-d.1574) |
| He
was the first sultan entirely devoid of military virtues and
willing to abandon all power to his ministers, provided he were
left free to pursue his orgies and debauches. Fortunately for the
country, an able grand vizier, Mahommed Sokolli, was at the head
of affairs, and two years after Selim's accession succeeded in
concluding at Constantinople
an honourable treaty with the emperor
Maximilian II,
whereby the emperor agreed to pay to Turkey
an annual "present" of 30,000 ducats (February
17, 1568). Against Russia he was less fortunate, and the first encounter between Turkey and her future northern rival gave presage of disaster to come. A plan had been elaborated at Constantinople for uniting the Volga and Don by a canal, and in the summer of 1569 a large force of Janissaries and cavalry were sent to lay siege to Astrakhan and begin the canal works, while an Ottoman fleet besieged Azov. But a sortie of the garrison of Astrakhan drove back the besiegers; 15,000 Russians, under Knes Serebianov, attacked and scattered the workmen and the Tatar force sent for their protection; and, finally, the Ottoman fleet was destroyed by a storm. Early in 1570 the ambassadors of Ivan the Terrible concluded at Constantinople a treaty which restored friendly relations between the sultan and the tsar. Expeditions in the Hejaz and Yemen were more successful, and the conquest of Cyprus in 1571, which provided Selim with his favourite vintage, led to the calamitous naval defeat of Lepanto in the same year, the moral importance of which has often been under-estimated, and which at least freed the Mediterranean from the corsairs by whom it was infested. Turkey's shattered fleets were soon restored, and Sokolli was preparing for a fresh attack on Venice, when the sultan's death cut short his plans. Little can be said of this degenerate son of Suleiman, who during the eight years of his reign never girded on the sword of Osman, and preferred the clashing of wine-goblets to the shock of arms, save that with the dissolute tastes of his mother, Hurrem (Aleksandra Lisowska), he had not inherited her ferocity. He is also known as "Selim the drunkard". |
| Murad III.............................12 Dec 1574 - 16 Jan 1595 (b.1546-d.1595) |
| Born
on July 4, 1546.
He was the eldest son of Selim
II,
and succeeded his father. His accession marks the definite
beginning of the decline of the Ottoman
power, which had only been maintained under Selim II by the genius
of the all-powerful grand vizier Mahommed Sokolli. For, though
Sokolli remained in office until his assassination in October 1578,
his authority was undermined by the harem influences, which with
Murad III were supreme. Of these the most powerful was that of the sultan's chief wife, named Safie (the pure), a beautiful Venetian of the noble family of Baffo, whose father had been governor of Corfu, and who had been captured as a child by Turkish corsairs and sold into the harem. This lady, in spite of the sultan's sensuality and of the efforts, temporarily successful, to supplant her in his favour, retained her ascendancy over him to the last. |
| Mohammed III [Mehmed III].............16 Jan 1695 - 22 Dec 1603 (b.1566-d.1603) |
| Born on May 26, 1566. He remains notorious even in Ottoman history for having his sixteen brothers strangled upon his succession. Mehmed was an idle ruler, leaving government to his mother the Sultana Valide. The major event of this reign was the Austro-Ottoman War in Hungary (1596-1605). Mehmed's armies conquered Erlau (1596) and defeated the Habsburg and Transylvanian forces at Mezokeresztes during which the Sultan had to be dissuaded from fleeing the field halfway through the battle. Mehmed's reign saw no major setbacks for the supposedly declining Ottoman Empire, but none of this can be attributed to the ruler himself. |
| Ahmed I [Ahmet I].....................22 Dec 1603 - 22 Nov 1617 (b.1590-d.1617) |
| Born
on Apr
18, 1590.
He succeeded his father Mehmed
III
in 1603
and became the first Ottoman sultan who reached the throne before
attaining his majority. He was of kindly and humane disposition,
as he showed by refusing to put to death his brother Mustafa, who
eventually succeeded him. He was known for his skills in fencing,
horseback riding, and fluency in numerous languages. In the earlier part of his reign he showed decision and vigour, which were belied by his subsequent conduct. The wars which attended his accession both in Hungary and in Persia terminated unfavourably for Turkey, and her prestige received its first check in the peace of Sitvatorok, signed in 1606, whereby the annual tribute paid by Austria was abolished. Ahmed gave himself up to pleasure during the remainder of his reign, which ended in 1617, and demoralization and corruption became as general throughout the public service as indiscipline in the ranks of the army. The use of tobacco is said to have been introduced into Turkey during Ahmed I.'s reign. Today Ahmed I is remembered mainly because it was during his reign that the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, also known as the Blue Mosque, one of the masterpieces of Islamic architecture, was constructed. The area in Istanbul around the Mosque is today called Sultanahmed. He died of typhus in 1617. |
| Mustafa I (1st time)..................22 Nov 1617 - 26 Feb 1618 (b.1592-d.1639) |
| The
brother of Ahmed I, Mustafa was reported to be mentally retarded
or at least neurotic and was never more than a tool of court
cliques at the Topkapi Palace. During the reign of his brother, he
was confined to his room in virtual imprisonment for fourteen
years. In 1618 he was deposed in favour of his young nephew Osman II, and after Osman's murder in 1622 he again took the throne for another year. He was finally deposed and imprisoned by Osman's brother Murad IV. He would die sixteen years later on 20th Jan 1639. |
| Othman II [Osman II]..................26 Feb 1618 - 20 May 1622 (b.1603-d.1622) |
| Born
on 03rd Nov 1603. Osman was the son of Ahmed
I.
He ascended the throne at the age of early age of 14 as the result
of a coup d'etat against his uncle Mustafa I. Despite his youth,
Osman soon sought to assert himself as a ruler and personally led
the Ottoman invasion of Poland. Heavily defeated at Chotin by the
Polish hetman Jan Chodikiewicz (1619),
Osman returned to Constantinople
in shame, blaming the cowardice of the Janissaries
for his humiliation. Probably the first Sultan to identify and
attempt to tackle the Janissaries as a praetorian institution
doing more harm than good to the modern empire, Osman closed their
coffee shops (the gathering points for consiracies against the
throne) and drafted loyal troops into the capital. The result was
a palace uprising under the leadership of Mustafa I's mother.
Osman was taken prisoner and strangled with a bowstring. Osman was certainly hotheaded, known to be vindictive and at times sadistic. However, as a ruler he was perceptive and energetic. In contrast to most of his successors he compares favourably. His worst fault as a politician was probably that he tried too much too soon. Died on 20th May 1622. |
| Mustafa I (2nd time)..................20 May 1622 - 10 Sep 1623 (s.a) |
| Murad IV .............................10 Sep 1623 - 09 Feb 1640 (b.1612-d.1640) |
| Born
on 16th June 1612. Brought to power by a palace conspiracy in
1623, Murad was for a long time under the control of his
relatives. During his early years as sultan, his mother, Kosem
Sultana essentially ruled through him. Murat would however shake
off the influences of his family in 1630. Murat asserted his own
control by beheading the Grand Vizier and taking government into
his own hands. He tried to quell the corruption that had grown
during the previous sultans, and that had not been checked while
his mother was ruling through proxy. This was achieved through
numerous ways, such as limiting wasteful spending. Ironically he
also banned alcohol and tobacco. Militarily Murad's reign is most notable for a war against Persia in which Ottoman forces conquered Azerbaijan, occupied Tabriz and - in the last great feat of Imperial Turkish arms - captured Baghdad in 1638. Murad himself commanded the invasion of Mesopotamia and proved to be an outstanding field commander. Unfortunately for the empire he was also an alcoholic, and it was from his passion for liquor that he died prematurely in 1640. Not until 1808 would there be another Sultan of his calibre. |
| Ibrahim...............................09 Feb 1640 - 08 Aug 1648 (b.1615-d.1648) |
| Born
on 05th Nov 1615. One of the most famous Ottoman Sultans as "Ibrahim
the Mad". He succeeded his brother Murad IV in 1640.
Inheriting all the cruelty and none of the ability of his
brothers, Ibrahim brought the Empire almost to collapse in a very
short space of time - paralleled only perhaps, by the rule of
Phocas in the Byzantine Empire. He is claimed to have suffered
from neurasthenia, and was also depressed after the death of his
brother. His reign was essentially that of his mother, Kosem
Sultana, who was no longer hindered in controlling the Empire as
she willed. He is known to have had an obsession with obsese women, urging his agents to find the fattest woman possible. A candidate was tracked down in Georgia or Armenia and Ibrahim was so pleased with her that he gave her a government pension and (allegedly) a governership. Ibrahim at first stayed away from politics, but eventually he took to raising and executing a number of viziers. A war with Venice was fought, and in spite of the decline of the Serenissima, Venetian ships won victories throughout the Aegean, capturing Tenedos (1646), the gateway to the Dardanelles. As Ibrahim's rule grew ever more unpredictable, he was deposed and murdered. |
| Mohammed IV [Mehmed IV]...............08 Aug 1648 - 08 Nov 1687 (b.1642-d.1693) |
| Born on 02nd Jan 1642. He was the son of Ibrahim I. Known as Mehmed Avci (the hunter), outdoor exercise took up much of the time of this Sultan. His reign is notable for a brief revival of Ottoman fortunes led by the ruthless Grand Vizier, Mehmed Koprulu. Koprulu regained the Aegean islands from Venice and fought successful campagns against Transylvania (1664) and Poland (1670-1674) - at one point Ottoman rule was close to extending into Podolia and the Ukraine. A later vizier, Kara Mustafa was less able. Supporting the 1683 Hungarian uprising of Imre Thuly against Austrian rule, Kara Mustafa marched a vast army through Hungary and besieged Vienna. On the Khalenburg Heights, the Ottomans were utterly routed by the Imperial army (under Charles V of Lorraine) and the vengeful Poles led by their King, John III Sobieski. Kara Mustafa was strangled in Belgrade on Mehmed's orders, but it was not enough to save the throne for the Sultan who was deposed and imprisoned at Edirne near his favourite hunting grounds. |
| Suleiman II [Suleyman II].............08 Nov 1687 - 25 Jun 1691 (b.1642-d.1691) |
| Born
on 15th Apr 1642. The younger brother of Mehmed
IV,
Suleiman had spent most of his life in the kafe (cage), a
kind of luxurious prison for princes of the blood within the Topkapi
Palace. When he was approached to accept the throne in after his brother's death by assassination in 1687, Suleiman assumed that the delegation had come to kill him and it was only with the greatest persuasion that he could be tempted out of the palace to be ceremonially girded with the sword of the Caliphs. Hardly able to take control of events himself, Suleiman nevertheless made a shrewd choice by appointing Ahmed Faizil Koprulu as his Grand Vizier. Under Koprulu's leadership the Turks halted an Austrian advance into Serbia and crushed an uprising in Bulgaria. During a campaign to retake eastern Hungary, Koprulu was defeated and killed by Imperial troops led by Louis William of Baden at Szlankamen in 1690. The Sultan died a year later. |
| Ahmed II [Ahmet II]...................23 Jun 1691 - 06 Feb 1695 (b.1643-d.1695) |
| Born on 25th Feb 1643. Ahmed was the son of Sultan Ibrahim I and succeeded his brother Suleiman II in 1691. His best known act was to confirm Mustafa Kuprili as grand vizier. Only a few weeks after his accession the Ottoman Empire sustained a crushing defeat at Slankamen from the Austrians under Prince Louis of Baden and was driven from Hungary. During the four years of his reign disaster followed on disaster, and in 1695 Ahmed died, worn out by disease and sorrow. |
| Mustafa II Ghazi......................06 Feb 1695 - 22 Aug 1703 (b.1664-d.1703) |
| Born on 06th Feb 1664. He was a son of sultan Mehmed IV and abdicated in favor of his brother Ahmed III in 1703. Mustafa sought to turn back the Austrian advance into his Empire and in 1697 took the field in person to reconquer Hungary. He was totally defeated at Zenta by Eugene of Savoy and this event led the Ottomans to seek peace terms. By the 1699 Peace of Carlowitz, Mustafa ceded Hungary and Transylvania to Austria, Morea to the Venetian Republic and withdrew Turkish forces from Polish Podolia. Also during this reign, Peter the Great captured the Black Sea fortress of Azov from the Turks (1697). Mustafa was deposed in favour of his cousin Ahmed III. |
| Ahmed III [Ahmet III].................22 Aug 1703 - 01 Oct 1730 (b.1637-d.1736) |
| Born
on 30th Dec 1637. He was the son of sultan Mehmed
IV.
He succeeded to the throne in 1703
on the abdication of his brother Mustafa
II. Ahmed cultivated good relations with England, in view doubtless of Russia's menacing attitude. He afforded a refuge in Turkey to Charles XII of Sweden after the Swedish defeat at the hands of Peter I of Russia in the Battle of Poltava in 1709. Forced against his will into war with Russia, he came nearer than any Turkish sovereign before or since to breaking the power of his northern rival, whom his Grand vizier Baltaji Mahommed Pasha succeeded in completely surrounding near the Pruth in 1711. In the treaty which Russia was compelled to sign, the Ottoman Empire obtained the restitution of Azov, the destruction of the forts built by Russia and the undertaking that the tsar should abstain from future interference in the affairs of the Poles or the Cossacks. Discontent at the leniency of these terms was so strong at Constantinople that it nearly brought on a renewal of the war. In 1715 the Morea was taken from the Venetians. This led to hostilities with Austria, in which the Ottoman Empire was unsuccessful, and Belgrade fell into the hands of Austria in 1717. Through the mediation of England and the Netherlands the peace of Passarowitz was concluded in 1718, by which Turkey retained her conquests from the Venetians, but lost Hungary. A war with Persia terminated in disaster, leading to a revolt of the janissaries, who deposed Ahmed in September 1730. He died in captivity six years later. |
| Mahmud I [Mahmut I] Ghazi Kambur......02 Oct 1730 - 13 Dec 1754 (b.1696-d.1754) |
| Born
on 02nd Aug 1696. Brought to the throne by the revolt of Halil
Pasha, Mahmud swiftly asserted himself by winning over the Janissaries
and having Halil Pasha murdered. The rest of Mahmud's reign was
dominated by wars with Persia
and Russia.
The Persian wars saw Ottoman forces ranged against the military
genius of Nadir
Shah.
The Turks managed to retain control of Baghdad,
but Armenia,
Azerbaijan
and Georgia
fell back within the Persian sphere of influence. The Russian war was fought primarily in the Crimea and the Danubian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia). In this war, the Russian commander Von Munnich routed Mahmud's Crimean Tartar vassals and then led his forces across the Dniestr, bringing much of Bessarabia under Russian control. The Austrians, however, did not fare as well, as Ottoman forces brought Belgrade and northern Serbia back under their control. Although no weakling, Mahmud entrusted government to his viziers and spent a large part of his time composing poetry. |
| Othman III [Osman III]................14 Dec 1754 - 30 Oct 1757 (b.1699-d.1757) |
| The
younger brother of Mahmud
I
and son of Mustafa
II,
Osman was a generally insignificant prince. His brief reign is
notable for a rising intolerance of non-Muslims (Christians
and Jews
being required to wear distinctive clothes or badges) and for a
fire in Istanbul. Osman lived most of his life as a prisoner in the Palace, and so upon becoming Sultan he had some behavioral peculiarities. Unlike previous sultans, he hated music, and sent all musicians out of the palace. He also would wear iron shoes in order to not cross paths with any women, by wearing such shoes they could hear him approach and disperse. |
| Mustafa III...........................30 Oct 1757 - 21 Jan 1774 (b.1717-d.1774) |
| Born
on 28th Jan 1717. He was a son of sultan Ahmed
III
and was succeeded by his brother Abd-ul-Hamid
I
in 1774.
An energetic and perceptive ruler, Mustafa sought to modernise the
army and the internal state machinery to bring his empire in line
with the Powers of Western Europe. Unfortunately the Ottoman state
had declined so far that any general attempts at modernisation
were but a drop in the ocean, whilst any major plans to change the
administrative status quo immediately roused the conservative Janissaries
and imams to the point of rebellion. Mustafa did secure the
services of foreign generals to initiate a reform of the infantry
and artillery. The Sultan also ordered the founding of Academies
for Mathematics, navigation and the Sciences. Well aware of his own military weakness, Mustafa assiduously avoided war and was powerless to prevent Catherine the Great's annexation of the Crimea. However this action, combined with further Russian aggression in Poland compelled Mustafa to declare war on St. Petersburg shortly before his death. |
| Abdulhamid I [Abdülhamit I]...........21 Jan 1774 - 07 Apr 1789 (b.1725-d.1789) |
| Selim III Cilhandar Ilhami............07 Apr 1789 - 29 May 1807 (b.1761-d.1808) |
| Born
on 24th Dec 1761.
He was a son of Mustafa III
and succeeded his uncle Abd-ul-Hamid
I. The talents and energy with which he was endowed had endeared him to the people, and great hopes were founded on his accession. He had associated much with foreigners, and was thoroughly persuaded of the necessity of reforming his state. But Austria and Russia gave him no time for anything but defence, and it was not until the peace of Jassy (1792) that a breathing space was allowed him in Europe, while Bonaparte's invasion of Egypt and Syria soon called for Turkey's strongest efforts and for the time shattered the old-standing French alliance. Selim profited by the respite to abolish the military tenure of fiefs; he introduced salutary reforms into the administration, especially in the fiscal department, sought by well-considered plans to extend the spread of education, and engaged foreign officers as instructors, by whom a small corps of new troops called nizam-i-jedid were collected and drilled. So well were these troops organized that they were able to hold their own against rebellious Janissaries in the European provinces, where disaffected governors made no scruple of attempting to make use of them against the reforming sultan. Emboldened by this success, Selim issued an order that in future picked men should be taken annually from the Janissaries to serve in their ranks. Hereupon the Janissaries and other enemies of progress rose at Adrianople, and in view of their number, exceeding 10,000, and the violence of their opposition, it was decided that the reforms must be given up for the present. Serbia, Egypt and the principalities were successively the scene of hostilities in which Turkey gained no successes, and in 1807 a British fleet appeared at Constantinople, strange to say to insist on Turkey's yielding to Russia's demands besides dismissing the ambassador of Napoleon I. Selim was, however, thoroughly under the influence of this ambassador, Sebastiani, and the fleet was compelled to retire without effecting its purpose. But the anarchy, manifest or latent, existing throughout the provinces proved too great for Selim to cone with. The Janissaries rose once more in revolt, induced the Sheikhul-Islam to grant a fetva against the reforms, dethroned and imprisoned Selim (1807), and placed his nephew Mustafa on the throne. The pasha of Rustchuk, Mustafa Bairakdar, a strong partisan of the reforms, now collected an army of 40,000 men and marched on Constantinople with the purpose of reinstating Selim. But he came too late; the ill-fated reforming sultan had been strangled in the seraglio, and Bairakdar's only resource was to wreak his vengeance on Mustafa and to place on the throne Mahmud II, the sole surviving member of the house of Osman. Died on 28/29 July 1808. |
| Mustafa IV............................29 May 1807 - 28 Jul 1808 (b.1779-d.1808) |
| Born
on 08th Sep 1779. His father was Abd-ul-Hamid
I.
During the reign of the reformist Selim
III,
Mustafa was looked upon favorably by the sultan. However, when a janissary revolt rose up against Selim, Mustafa deceived the sultan and supported the janissaries who deposed the old Sultan, and made Mustafa the new ruler. Sympathy for Selim persisted, however, and in 1808 an army under Mustafa Bayrakdar set out for Istanbul in order to bring Selim back to the throne. In response, Mustafa ordered the execution of Selim as well as another brother, Mahmud. This would make Mustafa the only remaining male member of the royal line and, he hoped, thus defuse the rebellion by eliminating any other legitimate candidates for the throne. Selim was killed and his body was thrown before the rebels in mockery, but Mustafa was deposed anyway and replaced by Mahmud, who had escaped execution by hiding. Mustafa was put to death later in the year in Nov 1808. |
| Mahmud II [Mahmut II Adli]............28 Jul 1808 - 01 Jul 1839 (b.1785-d.1839) |
| Born
on 20th July 1785. Placed on the throne after the rebels deposed
Mustafa. The leader of this rebellion, Mustafa Bayrakdar, then
became Mahmud's vizier and took the initiative in resuming reforms
that had been terminated by the conservative coup of 1807 that had
brought Mustafa IV to power. It was not long before the vezir was
killed by rebellious Janissaries
in a fire, however, and Mahmud was forced to temporarily abandon
the reforms. Later in his reign, Mahmud's efforts at reform were more successful. His most notable achievement was the massacre of the Janissary corps in 1826. Most of his reforms were not so successful, however, and he was confronted in 1821 with a major rebellion in Greece. Following the great power intervention which resulted in the Battle of Navarino in 1827 and a Russo-Turkish War in 1828-1829, Mahmud was forced to grant Greece its independence in 1832. Mahmud appears to have been unable to effect the reforms he desired in the mode of educating his children, so that his son received no better education than that given to Turkish princes in the harem. His son Abd-ul-Mejid succeeded him. Late in his reign, Mahmud became involved in disputes with his ambitious vassal Mehemet Ali, Wali (Governor) of Egypt. Mahmud had enlisted Mehemet Ali's help in suppressing the rebellion in Greece, but had not paid the promised price for his services. In 1831, the Wali declared war, and managed to take control of Syria and Arabia by war's end in 1833. In 1839, Mahmud resumed the war, hoping to recover his losses, but at the very time he died, the news was on its way to Constantinople that the empire's army had been signally defeated at Nezib by an Egyptian army led by Mehemet Ali's son, Ibrahim Pasha. When he died from tuberculosis on 01st July 1839, his funeral was crowded by throngs of people who came to bid the sultan farewell. British, Prussian and French advisors were imported. Most importantly a series of schools teaching everything from math to medicine were set up to train the new officers. Mahmud adopted other western ideas, however. The government was overhauled and redesigned on European models. European clothing styles were also imported and the Sultan and the elites abandoned the fez and turban. The first Turkish newspaper, an official government publication, was also published during this time. This period of reform continue after the death of Mahmud in 1839. In 1849 a massive new progam of reforms known as the Tanzimat was launched. |
| Abdulmecid [Abdülmecit I Ghazi].......01 Jul 1839 - 25 Jun 1861 (b.1823-d.1861) |
| Abdulaziz [Abdülaziz I]...............25 Jun 1861 - 30 May 1876 (b.1830-d.1876) |
| Murad V [Mehmed Murad V]..............30 May 1876 - 31 Aug 1876 (b.1840-d.1904) |
| Born on 21st Sep 1840. Son of Sultan Abdul Mejid, he was placed in power after his uncle Sultan Abdul Aziz was deposed. He was highly influenced by French culture. He reigned for 93 days before also being deposed, due to mental illness, and succeeded by his brother Sultan Abdul Hamid II. He failed to deliver the Constitution that his supporters had sought, and under his reign the country moved closer to the disastrous Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78 against Alexander II of Russia. Died on 29th Aug 1909. |
| Abdulhamid II [Abdülhamit II |
| Ghazi Kanli Bedros]...............31 Aug 1876 - 27 Apr 1909 (b.1842-d.1918) |
| Mohammed V [Mehmet V Resad Ghazi].....27 Apr 1909 - 03 Jul 1918 (b.1844-d.1918) |
| Mohammed VI [Mehmed VI Vahdettin].....03 Jul 1918 - 01 Nov 1922 (b.1861-d.1926) |
| Born
on 14th Jan 1861. He was the last Sultan
of the Ottoman
Empire.The
brother of Mehmed
V Resad,
he succeeded to the throne due to the suicide of Yusuf Izzetin,
the heir to the throne. He was crowned on July
4, 1918,
as the thirty-sixth padishah. World War I had been a disaster for the Ottoman Empire. British forces had occupied Baghdad and Jerusalem during the war and most of the Empire was to be divided among the European allies. At the San Remo conference of April 1920, the French had been given a mandate over Syria and the British had been given one over Palestine and Mesopotamia. On August 10, 1920, Mehmed's representatives signed the Treaty of Sevres, which recognized the mandates, removed Ottoman control over Anatolia and Izmir, severely reduced the extent of Turkey, and recognised Hejaz as an independent state. Turkish nationalists were angered by the Sultan's acceptance of the settlement. A new government, the Turkish Grand National Assembly, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal had been formed in April 1920, centred on Ankara. On April 23, the government of Mehmed was denounced and a temporary constitution was affirmed. The nationalists' successes meant that the sultanate was abolished on November 1, 1922, and Vahdettin left Constantinople aboard a British warship on November 17th, bound for exile on the Italian Riviera. He died in San Remo, Italy. On November 19, 1922 his first cousin and Crown Prince was elected Caliph becoming the new Head of the dynasty. He died on 16th May 1926. |
| Caliph (only) |
| Abdulmecid II [Abdülmecit II].........19 Nov 1922 - 03 Mar 1924 (b.1868-d.1944) |
| He was the last Caliph
of the Ottoman Empire and nominaly the 37th and last Head of the Imperial House of Osman
I. Succeeded as Caliph Abdul Mejid II was the last historical Caliph in a line that has started with Abu
Bakr in 632.
On May 29 1868, he was born at Dolmabahche Palace of Istanbul (form. Constantinople) to then Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz.
He was educated privately. On July 4, 1918 his first cousin Mehmed VI
became Sultan and Abdul Mejid was named Crown Prince. Following
the deposition of his cousin on November 1, 1922
the Sultanate was abolished. But on November 19, 1922,
the Crown Prince was elected Caliph by the Turkish National Assembly at Ankara.
He established himself in Istanbul on November 24, 1922.
On March
3, 1924
he was deposed and expelled from the shores of Turkey
with the rest of his family. He was given the title of General of Ottoman Army and served as Chairman of the Ottoman Artist's Society. A painter himself, his portraits of Ludwig van Beethoven Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Selim I were displayed at the Vienna Exhibition of 1918. On December 23, 1896 he was first married at the Ortak y Palace to H.H. Shahsuvar Bash Kadin Effendi (Istanbul (form. Constantinople) May 2, 1881 - Paris, France 1945). They had a son: Prince Shehzade mer Faruk Efendi (February 27, 1898 - 1969/1971). On June 18, 1902 he was married secondly at the Ortak y Palace to Hair un-nisa 2nd Kadin Effendi (b. at Panderma, March 2, 1876; d. at Nice, France, September 3, 1936). They had a daughter: Princess Hadice Hayriye Ayshe D hsehvar (January 26, 1914 - ). On April 16, 1912 he was married thirdly at Çamlica (chamlidcha) Palace to H.H. Atiya Mihisti 3rd Kadin Effendi (born at Adapazari, January 27, 1892; died in 1964 London, United Kingdom). She was sister of Kamil Bey. On March 21, 1921 he was married fourthly at Çamlica (chamlidcha) Palace to Bihruz 4th Kadin Effendi (born at Izmir, May 24, 1903). On August 23, 1944 Abdul Mejid II died at his house in the Boulevard Suchet, Paris XVIe, France. He was buried at Haram-i-Sharif, Medina, Saudi Arabia. |
| Republic of Turkey...........................1922 - date |
| Rulers of Turkey |
| Chiefa Coins |