Turkey
 

 
 
Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), officially the Republic of Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti), is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is bordered by eight countries with Greece and Bulgaria to the northwest; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, the Azerbaijan and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the south. The country is encircled by seas on three sides with the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, which together form the Turkish Straits, divide Thrace and Anatolia and separate Europe and Asia. Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the country's largest city and main cultural and commercial centre, classified as a leading global city.
Approximately 70–80% of the country's citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks. Kurds are the largest minority at about 20% of the population; other ethnic minorities include Circassians, Albanians, Arabs, Bosniaks, and Laz people. The official language is Turkish, which is the most widely spoken Turkic language in the world. Minority languages spoken today in Turkey include Kurmanji, Bosnian, Arabic, Zaza, Kabardian, and several others.
The area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic age by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians, and Armenians. After Alexander the Great conquered these lands, the area was Hellenized, a process which continued under the Roman Empire and its transition into the Byzantine Empire. The Seljuk Turks began migrating into the area in the 11th century, and their victory over the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 symbolizes the start and foundation of Turkey. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated into small Turkish principalities.
From the end of the 13th century the Ottomans started uniting these Turkish principalities in Anatolia and then went on to create an empire that encompassed much of Southeast Europe, West Asia and North Africa. The Ottoman Empire became a world power beginning with the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent in the early modern period. It remained powerful and influential for two more centuries, until important setbacks in the 19th and 20th century forced it to cede strategic territories in Europe, which signalled the loss of its former military strength and wealth. After the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état, which effectively put the country under the control of the Three Pashas, the Ottoman Empire decided to join the Central Powers during World War I. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian and Pontic Greek subjects. Following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. The Turkish War of Independence, initiated by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his colleagues against occupying Allies, resulted in the abolition of monarchy in 1922 and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, with Atatürk as its first president. Atatürk enacted numerous reforms, many of which incorporated various aspects of Western thought, philosophy, and customs into the new form of Turkish government.
 

 
 
Ottoman Empire Coinage 1299-1922.
 
Coins of Republic of Turkey, can be viewed by clicking the below links, sorted yearly according to respective Presidential rule.
 
  • Chairman of the Presidium of the Turkish Grand National Assembly
  • Gazı Mustafa Kemal.................................01 Nov 1922 - 29 Oct 1923 d. 1938
  • Turkish Republic - Presidents
  • Gazı Mustafa Kemal (continued).....................29 Oct 1923 - 10 Nov 1938
  • From 24 Nov 1934, he was known as Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
  • Mustafa Abdülhalik Renda (acting)..................10 Nov 1938 - 11 Nov 1938 d. 1948
  • Mustafa İsmet İnönü................................11 Nov 1938 - 22 May 1950 d. 1973
  • Mahmud Celâleddin Bayar............................22 May 1950 - 27 May 1960 d. 1986
  • Celal Bayar died on 22 August 1986 at the age of 103 after a brief illness.
  • Cemal Gürsel.......................................27 May 1960 - 28 Mar 1966 d. 1966
  • He was Chairman Comittee of National Unity to 28 May 1960. Head of State: 28 May 1960 - 26 Oct 1961. The 1960 Turkish coup d'état (Turkish: 27 Mayıs Darbesi) was the first coup d'état in the Republic of Turkey. The coup was staged by a group of 38 young Turkish military officers, acting outside the Staff Chiefs' chain of command. It was orchestrated by Alparslan Türkeş and ultimately led on 27 May 1960 by General Cemal Gürsel, against the democratically-elected government of the Democrat Party. Alparslan Türkeş was a member of the junta (National Unity Committee). Adnan Menderes (Prime Minister), Fatin Rüştü Zorlu (Turkish Foreign Minister) and Hasan Polatkan (Minister of Finance) were executed on 16 September 1961 on the island of İmralı. New Constitution was declared. 27 May was declared as Day of Independence and Constitution.
  • İbrahim Şevki Atasagun (acting for Gürcel).........02 Feb 1966 - 28 Mar 1966 d. 1984
  • Cevdet Sunay.......................................28 Mar 1966 - 28 Mar 1973 d. 1982
  • By January 1971, Turkey appeared to be in a state of chaos. The universities had ceased to function. Students, emulating Latin American urban guerrillas, robbed banks and kidnapped US servicemen, also attacking American targets. The homes of university professors critical of the government were bombed by neo-fascist militants. Factories were on strike and more workdays were lost between 01 January and 12 March 1971 than during any prior year. The Islamist movement had become more aggressive and its party, the National Order Party, openly rejected Atatürk and Kemalism, infuriating the Turkish Armed Forces.
    The 12 March 1971 Turkish military memorandum (Turkish: 12 Mart Muhtırası) was issued. It was the second military intervention to take place in the Republic of Turkey, coming 11 years after its 1960 predecessor. It is known as the "coup by memorandum", which the military delivered in lieu of sending out tanks, as it had done previously. The event came amid worsening domestic strife, but ultimately did little to halt this phenomenon. The motive was believed that Süleyman Demirel has lost his grip on power and was unable to deal with rising public disorder and political terrorism. Hundreds died and Turkish investigative journalist Uğur Mumcu was arrested. This was organised by Grey Wolves [Turkish: Bozkurtlar, officially known as Ülkü Ocakları]. On 27 April 1971, martial law was declared in 11 of 67 provinces, including major urban areas and Kurdish regions. Soon, youth organisations were banned, union meetings prohibited, leftist (but not militant neo-fascist) publications proscribed and strikes declared illegal. After the Israeli consul was abducted on 17 May 1971, hundreds of students, young academics, writers, trade unionists and Workers' Party activists—not just leftists but also people with liberal-progressive sympathies—were detained and tortured. The consul was shot four days later after a daytime curfew had been announced.
  • Mehmet Tekin Arıburun (acting).....................28 Mar 1973 - 06 Apr 1973 d. 1993
  • Fahri Sabit Korutürk...............................06 Apr 1973 - 06 Apr 1980 d. 1987
  • İhsan Sabri Çağlayangil (acting)...................06 Apr 1980 - 12 Sep 1980 d. 1993
  • Ahmet Kenan Evren..................................12 Sep 1980 - 09 Nov 1989 d. 2015
  • He was Head of State and Chairman of National Security Council to 09 Nov 1982. The 12 September 1980 Turkish coup d'état (Turkish: 12 Eylül Darbesi), headed by Chief of the General Staff General Kenan Evren, was the third coup d'état in the history of the Republic, the previous having been the 1960 coup and the 1971 "Coup by Memorandum". During the Cold War era, 1970s Turkey experienced conflicts between Western-supported nationalist far right elements within the military and militant left-wing groups. To create a pretext for a decisive intervention, the Turkish military allowed these conflicts to escalate; Some say they actively adopted a strategy of tension. The violence abruptly stopped afterwards, and the coup was welcomed by some for restoring order. In total, 50 (26 political prisoners, 23 criminal offenders and 1 ASALA militant) people were executed, 500,000 were arrested and hundreds died in prison. For the next three years the Turkish Armed Forces ruled the country through the National Security Council, before democracy was restored.
  • Halil Turgut Özal..................................09 Nov 1989 - 17 Apr 1993 d.1993
  • Ahmet Hüsamettin Cindoruk (acting).................17 Apr 1993 - 16 May 1993
  • Sami Süleyman Gündoğdu Demirel.....................16 May 1993 - 16 May 2000 d. 2015
  • On 17 January 1997, during a visit to the Turkish General Staff, President Süleyman Demirel requested a briefing on common military problems. İsmail Hakkı Karadayı, Chief of the General Staff, enumerated 55 items. Demirel said half of them were based on hearsay and encouraged Karadayı to communicate with the government and to soften the memorandum's wording.
    On 31 January 1997, protests were arranged by the Sincan municipality in Ankara, against alleged Israeli human rights violations that took place in guise of an "Al-Quds night". The building in which the event took place was plastered with posters of Hamas and Hezbollah. As a reaction to the demonstration, tanks moved to the streets of Sincan on 04 February 1997. This intervention was later described by Çevik Bir as "a balance adjustment to democracy".
    At the National Security Council (MGK) meeting on 28 February 1997, the generals submitted their views on issues regarding secularism and political Islam on Turkey to the government. The MGK made several decisions during this meeting. Prime Minister Necmettin Erbakan from the Welfare Party was forced to sign the decisions: Eight years of primary school education, Shutting down many religious schools opened during his term and Abolition of Tarikats (sectarian groups).
    The 1997 military memorandum (Turkish: 28 Şubat, "28 February"; also called Post-modern darbe, "Post-modern coup") in Turkey refers to the decisions issued by the Turkish military leadership on a National Security Council meeting on 28 February 1997. This memorandum initiated the process that precipitated the resignation of Islamist prime minister Necmettin Erbakan of the Welfare Party, and the end of his coalition government. As the government was forced out without dissolving the parliament or suspending the constitution, the event has been famously labelled a "postmodern coup" by the Turkish admiral Salim Dervişoğlu. The process after the coup is alleged to have been organised by the Batı Çalışma Grubu (Western Working Group), a purported clandestine group within the military.
  • Ahmet Necdet Sezer.................................16 May 2000 - 28 Aug 2007
  • Abdullah Gül.......................................28 Aug 2007 - 28 Aug 2014
  • Recep Tayyip Erdoğan...............................28 Aug 2014 - date
  • On 15 July 2016, a coup d'état was attempted in Turkey against state institutions, including the government and President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. The attempt was carried out by a faction within the Turkish Armed Forces that organized themselves as the Peace at Home Council. They attempted to seize control of several key places in Ankara, Istanbul, and elsewhere, but failed to do so after forces loyal to the state defeated them. The government said the coup leaders were linked to the Gülen movement, which is designated as a terrorist organization by the Republic of Turkey and led by Muhammed Fethullah Gülen, a Turkish businessman and cleric who lives in Pennsylvania. The Turkish government stated Gülen was behind the coup (which Gülen denied) and said the United States was harboring him. Gülen has suggested the coup was in fact a "self-coup" carried out by Erdoğan to consolidate his grip on power, a view shared by some political analysts and Turks. Events surrounding the coup attempt and the purges in its aftermath reflect a complex power struggle between Islamist elites in Turkey. During the coup, over 300 people were killed and more than 2,100 were injured. Many government buildings, including the Turkish Parliament and the Presidential Palace, were bombed from the air. Mass arrests followed, with at least 40,000 detained, including at least 10,000 soldiers and, for reasons that remain unclear, 2,745 judges. 15,000 education staff were also suspended and the licenses of 21,000 teachers working at private institutions were revoked after the government stated they were loyal to Gülen. More than 77,000 people have been arrested and over 160,000 fired from their jobs, on reports of connections to Gülen. Three-month state of emergency announced by President Erdoğan, effective by 21 July 2016, which was repeatedly extended and ended on 19 July 2018. On 12 March 2020, Interior Minister Süleyman Soylu announces his resignation, but it is rejected by President Recep Tayyip Erdogan.
 
 
  • Prime Ministers
  • Mustafa Fevzi Çakmak Pasha (in opposition).........24 Jan 1921 - 12 Jul 1922 d. 1950
  • Hüseyin Rauf Orbay.................................12 Jul 1922 - 14 Aug 1923 d. 1964
  • In opposition until 04 Nov 1922.
  • Ali Fethi Okyar Bey (1st time).....................14 Aug 1923 - 30 Oct 1923 d. 1943
  • Mustafa İsmet Pasha (1st time).....................30 Oct 1923 - 21 Nov 1924 d. 1973
  • Ali Fethi Okyar Bey (2nd time).....................21 Nov 1924 - 06 Mar 1925
  • Mustafa İsmet Pasha (2nd time).....................06 Mar 1925 - 27 Sep 1937
  • From 01 Jan 1935, he was known as İsmet Inönü.
  • Mahmud Celâleddin Bayar............................27 Sep 1937 - 25 Jan 1939 d. 1986
  • İbrahim Refik Saydam...............................25 Jan 1939 - 08 Jul 1942 d. 1942
  • Ahmet Fikri Tüzer..................................08 Jul 1942 - 09 Jul 1942 d. 1942
  • Mehmet Şükrü Saracoğlu.............................09 Jul 1942 - 07 Aug 1946 d. 1953
  • Mehmet Recep Peker.................................07 Aug 1946 - 09 Sep 1947 d. 1950
  • Hasan Hüsnü Saka...................................09 Sep 1947 - 16 Jan 1949 d. 1960
  • Mehmet Şemsettin Günaltay..........................16 Jan 1949 - 22 May 1950 d. 1961
  • Ali Adnan Ertekin Menderes.........................22 May 1950 - 28 May 1960 d. 1961
  • Cemal Gürsel.......................................28 May 1960 - 30 Oct 1961 d. 1966
  • Emin Fahrettin Özdilek (acting)....................30 Oct 1960 - 20 Nov 1961 d. 1989
  • Mustafa İsmet İnönü (3rd time).....................20 Nov 1961 - 21 Feb 1965
  • Ali Suat Hayri Ürgüplü.............................21 Feb 1965 - 27 Oct 1965 d. 1981
  • Sami Süleyman Gündoğdu Demirel (1st time)..........27 Oct 1965 - 26 Mar 1971
  • İsmail Nihat Erim..................................26 Mar 1971 - 17 Apr 1972 d. 1980
  • Ferit Sadi Melen...................................17 Apr 1972 - 15 Apr 1973 d. 1988
  • He was acting to 22 May 1972.
  • Mehmet Naim Talu...................................15 Apr 1973 - 25 Jan 1974 d. 1998
  • Mustafa Bülent Ecevit (1st time)...................25 Jan 1974 - 17 Nov 1974
  • Mahmut Sadi Irmak..................................17 Nov 1974 - 31 Mar 1975 d. 1990
  • Sami Süleyman Gündoğdu Demirel (2nd time)..........31 Mar 1975 - 21 Jun 1977
  • Mustafa Bülent Ecevit (2nd time)...................21 Jun 1977 - 11 Jun 1977
  • Sami Süleyman Gündoğdu Demirel (3rd time)..........11 Jul 1977 - 05 Jan 1978
  • Mustafa Bülent Ecevit (3rd time)...................05 Jan 1978 - 12 Nov 1979
  • Sami Süleyman Gündoğdu Demirel (4th time)..........12 Nov 1979 - 12 Sep 1980
  • Saim Bülend Ulusu..................................20 Sep 1980 - 13 Dec 1983 d. 2015
  • Halil Turgut Özal..................................13 Dec 1983 - 31 Oct 1989 d. 1993
  • Ali Hüsrev Bozer (acting)..........................31 Oct 1989 - 09 Nov 1989 d. 2020
  • Yıldırım Akbulut...................................09 Nov 1989 - 23 Jun 1991
  • Ahmet Mesut Yılmaz (1st time)......................23 Jun 1991 - 20 Nov 1991 d. 2020
  • He died on 30 October 2020.
  • Sami Süleyman Gündoğdu Demirel (5th time)..........20 Nov 1991 - 16 May 1993
  • Erdal İnönü (acting)...............................16 May 1993 - 25 Jun 1993 d. 2007
  • Tansu Penbe Çiller (female)........................25 Jun 1993 - 06 Mar 1996
  • Ahmet Mesut Yılmaz (2nd time)......................06 Mar 1996 - 28 Jun 1996
  • Necmetttin Erbakan.................................28 Jun 1996 - 30 Jun 1997 d. 2011
  • Ahmet Mesut Yılmaz (3rd time)......................30 Jun 1997 - 11 Jan 1999
  • Mustafa Bülent Ecevit (4th time)...................11 Jan 1999 - 18 Nov 2002
  • Abdullah Gül.......................................18 Nov 2002 - 14 Mar 2003
  • Recep Tayyip Erdoğan...............................14 Mar 2003 - 28 Aug 2014
  • Ahmet Davutoğlu....................................28 Aug 2014 - 24 May 2016
  • He was acting to 29 Aug 2014.
  • Binali Yıldırım....................................24 May 2016 - 09 Jul 2018
  • He later served as Speaker of the Grand National Assembly: 12 July 2018 – 18 February 2019.
  • Peace at Home Council (in rebellion)...............15 Jul 2016 - 16 Jul 2016
  • During 15 July 2016 - 16 July 2016, a coup d'état was attempted and failed in Turkey against state institutions, including the government and President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. Prime Minister post was abolished on 09 July 2018.
 
 
Coinage of Ottoman Empire listed at various places by their rulers:
 
 
 
Countries / Territories
 
Chiefa Coins