A general survey of empires spanning much,
if not all, of the subcontinent of southern Asia. Local states will be found
below, in their own section.
3300 BC - 1700 BC
Indus Valley Civilization.
1700 BC - 1300 BC Late
Harappan Culture.
1500 BC - 500 BC Vedic
Civilization..
1200 BC - 316 BC Kuru dynasty.
1000
BC Aryans expand into the Ganga valley.
900 BC Mahabharata War.
800 BC Aryans expand into Bengal. Beginning of
the Epic Age:
Mahabharata composed.
First version of Ramayana.
700 BC - 321 BC
Maha Janapadas
684 BC - 321 BC
Madadha Empire
550 BC Composition of the Upanishads
544 BC Buddha's Nirvana
327 BC Alexander's Invasion
325 BC Alexander marches ahead till
Multan
324 BC Chandragupta Maurya defeats Seleacus Nicator
322 BC Rise of the Mauryas: Chandragupta establishes first Indian
Empire
321 BC - 187 BC Mauryan Empire
298 BC
Bindusara Coronated
272 BC Ashoka begins regin
180 BC Fall of the Mauryas. Rise of the Sungas
by Pushyamatra Sunga
Between about
1400 BCE and around 800 BCE, the Indian subcontinent saw a succession of
invasive waves of Aryan peoples, migrating southeast out of Central Asia. No
single, all-encompassing empire took shape immediately, but as the earlier
inhabitants of the region (the Dravidians) were pushed ever southward,
numerous states emerged from the Indus Valley to the Ganges and Brahmaputra
River systems, and extending south into the Deccan Plateau. Among these
states were Gandhara, Kurut, Kosala, Magadha, Avanti, Bhoja, and Andhra,
among many others. One of the smaller states, located north of the Ganges
and approaching the Himalayas (the modern India/Nepal frontier) was Sakya,
the homeland of Gautama Buddha. Eventually, large empires did emerge, the
first to do so was the Mauryan Empire.
MAURYA
The Empire was founded in 322 BC by
Chandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty when he was
only about 20 years old and rapidly expanded his power westwards across
Northern, Central and Eastern parts of India along with parts of
Afghanistan and Baluchistan. He took advantage of the disruptions of
local powers in the wake of the withdrawal westward by Alexander the
Great's Greek and Persian armies. By 320 BC the empire had fully
occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the Macedonian
satraps, among them was Seleucus I Nicator left by Alexander.
Chandragupta established centralized rule throughout South Asia with
capital at Pataliputra (mordern-day Patna). Silver punch mark coin of
the Maurya empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant are known.
Chandragupta Maurya...................................c. 320 - c. 300
BC
Bindusara S/o Chandragupta............................c. 300 - c. 273
He had two sons, Sumana and Ashoka, who were
the viceroys of Taxila and Ujjain respectively. Bindusara extended this
empire to the southern part of India, as far as what is now known as
Karnataka. He brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus
conquered almost all of the Indian peninsula (he is said to have
conquered the 'land between the two seas' - the peninsular region
between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea). Bindusara didn't conquer
the friendly Dravidian kingdoms of the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras.
Apart from these southern states, Kalinga (the modern Orissa) was the
only kingdom in India that didn't form the part of Bindusara's empire.
It was later conquered by his son Ashoka, who served as the viceroy of
Ujjaini during his father's reign.
Ashoka Vardhana S/o Bindusara.........................c. 273 - c. 232
His empire stretched from present-day
Pakistan, Afghanistan in the west, to the present-day Bangladesh and the
Indian state of Assam in the east, and as far south as northern Kerala
and Andhra except Tamil Nadu. He conquered the kingdom named Kalinga,
which no one in his dynasty had conquered before. He ruled almost 40
years and died at the age of 72 years. After two thousand years, the
influence of Ashoka is seen in Asia and especially the Indian
subcontinent. An emblem excavated from his empire is today the national
Emblem of India. His twin sibling; son Mahindra (known to be a Buddhist
monk) and daughter Sanghamitta are depicted in Buddhist sources as
bringing Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
Kunala (in the West)
S/o Ashoka Vardhana..............c.
232 - c. 225 with...
Tishyaraksha was one of the wives of emperor
Ashoka. Around the year 300 BC, she managed to blind Kunala who was the
son of Ashoka by another wife, at a young age in jealousy. For this
Ashoka ordered that Tishyaraksha be killed.
Dasaratha (in the East)...............................c.
232 - c. 225
He succeeded his grandfather Ashoka the Great
at the age of twenty after his uncle Kunala became blind, which made him
unfit to rule.
Samprati S/o Kunala...................................c. 225 -
c. 215
According to Jaina tradition, King Samprati
had no children. He considered it the consequence of earlier Karma and
observed the religious customs more scrupulously.
Salisuka..............................................c.
215 - c. 202
Devadharma [Devavarman]...............................c.
202 - c. 195
Satamdhanu [Satadhanvan]..............................c.
195 - c. 187
Brihadratha...........................................c.
187 - c. 180
Mauryan territories during his reign just
centered around the capital of Pataliputra and had shrunk considerably.
He was killed in 180 BCE and power usurped by his commander-in-chief,
the Brahmin general Pusyamitra Sunga, who then took over the throne and
established the Sunga dynasty. Also in 180 BCE, northwestern India
(parts of modern day Afghanistan and Pakistan) were attacked by the
Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I and established his rule in the Kabul
Valley and parts of the Punjab in modern-day Pakistan.
The Mauryan
state swiftly lost cohesion, and was replaced by lesser territories. Two of
the largest and most stable were the core of the Mauryan Empire, Magadha,
located in the central Ganges plain, and Satavahana, in the central Deccan
in the south. But by the 1st century BCE, the Indian subcontinent was a mass
of lesser states with no pretensions to Imperial status. Not until the 3rd
century CE did another large state emerge - like the Mauryans, from Magadha.
At its greatest extent, the Gupta Empire covered all of Northern India, from
the Indus to the Bengal Delta, but it could not subdue the Deccan or lands
farther south.
c. 187 BC - c. 75 BC Sunga dynasty (in Magadha)
145 BC Chola King Erata conquers Ceylon
(now Srilanka)
c. 75 BC - c. 30 BC Kanva
dynasty
58 BC Epoch of the Krita-Malava-Vikram Era
30
BC Rise of the Satvahana Dynasty in the Deccan
40 CE Sakas in
power in Indus Valley and Western India
50 The Kushans and Kanishkas
78 Saka Era
begins
320 Chandragupta I establishes the Gupta dynasty
360 Samudragupta conquers the North and most of the Deccan
380 Chandragupta II comes to power. Golden Age of Gupta Literary
Renaissance.
405 Fa-hein
begins his travels through the Gupta Empire
415 Accession of Kumara Gupta I
455 Skanda
Gupta assumes power
476 Birth of
astronomer Aryabhatta
606 Accession of Harshavardhana
622 Era of Hejira begins
711 Invasion of Sind by Muhammad Bin Qasim
892 Rise of the
Eastern Chalukyas
622 Era of Hejira begins
985 The Chola
Dynasty: Accession of Rajaraja I Dev the Great
1001 Defeat of Rajyapala by Sultan Mahumd Ghazni
GUPTA
An ancient Indian empire Founded by Maharaja
Sri-Gupta, which existed approximately from 275 to 550 CE and covered
much of the Indian Subcontinent with capital at was Pataliputra (present
day Patna, in the north Indian state of Bihar).
Gupta.................................................c. 275 - c. 300
At the beginning of the 5th century the
Maharaja Sri-Gupta, established and ruled a few small Hindu kingdoms in
Magadha and around modern-day Bihar.
Ghatotkacha S/o Gupta.................................c. 300 - c. 320
Chandragupta I S/o Ghatotkacha........................c. 320 - c. 350
In a breakthrough deal, Chandra Gupta was
married to Kumardevi, a Lichchhavi princess; the main power in Magadha.
With a dowry of the kingdom of Magadha (capital Pataliputra) and an
alliance with the Lichchhavis, Chandra Gupta set about expanding his
power, conquering much of Magadha, Prayaga and Saketa. He established a
realm stretching from the Ganga River (Ganges River) to Prayaga
(modern-day Allahabad) by 321 CE. He assumed the imperial title of “Maharajadhiraja”.
Samudragupta S/o Chandragupta.........................c. 350 - c. 370
Samudragupta succeeded his father. He took the
kingdoms of Shichchhatra and Padmavati early in his reign. He then
attacked the Malwas, the Yaudheyas, the Arjunayanas, the Maduras and the
Abhiras, all of which were tribes in the area. By his death, he had
incorporated over twenty kingdoms into his realm and his rule extended
from the Himalayas to the river Narmada and from the Brahmaputra to the
Yamuna. He gave himself the titles King of Kings and World Monarch. He
is considered the Napoleon of north India. He performed Ashwamedha yajna
(horse sacrifice) to underline the importance of his conquest. Much is
known about Samudragupta through coins issued by him. These were of
eight different types and all made of pure gold. His conquests brought
him the gold and also the coin-making expertise from his acquaintance
with the Kushana.
Ramagupta S/o Samudragupta............................c. 370 - c. 376
Samudragupta was succeeded by his elder son
Ram Gupta , a weak king, he agreed to surrender his wife Dhruvadevi to
the Saka Chief Rudrasimha II.
Chandragupta II S/o Samudragupta......................c. 376 - c. 415
Ram Gupta’s younger brother Chandra Gupta II
went to the Saka camp disguised as the queen and assassinated the Saka
Chief. After this he killed his brother Ram Gupta, married Dhruvadevi
and ascended to the throne. He became known as the Sun of Power (Vikramaditya).
He also married to a Kadamba princess of Kuntala region and a Nag
princess, Kubernag. His daughter Prabhavatigupta from this Nag wife was
married to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka king of Deccan (this daughter was
forced to be married by the father). Only marginally less successful
than his father, Chandra Gupta II expanded his realm westwards,
defeating the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra
in a campaign lasting until 409, but with his main opponent Rudrasimha
III defeated by 395, and crushing the Bengal (Vanga) chiefdoms. This
extended his control from coast-to-coast, established a second (trading)
capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire.
Kumaragupta I S/o Chandragupta II.....................c. 415 - c. 455
He is known as the Mahendraditya. Towards the
end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the Pushyamitras, rose
in power to threaten the empire. The Pushyamitras were a tribe of
foreigners who were settled in Central India. However, Kumaragupta was
successful in defeating the invaders and performed Ashvamedha Yajna
(horse sacrifice) to celebrate his victory. He issued new coins with
images of Lord Kartikeya.
Skandagupta S/o Kumaragupta I ........................c. 455 - c. 467
He was also faced with invading Indo-Hephthalites
or "White Huns", known in India as Hunas, from the northwest.
Skandagupta had warred against the Huns during the reign of his father,
and was celebrated throughout the empire as a great warrior. He crushed
the Huna invasion in 455, and managed to keep them at bay; however, the
expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to
its decline. After his death, the Gupta empire began to decline rapdily.
Some historian believe that Purugupta and Skandagupta were the same
person.
Kumaragupta II........................................c. 467 - c. 477
Budhagupta............................................c. 477 - c. 495
In the 480's the Hephthalite King Oprah broke
through the Gupta defenses in the northwest, and much of the empire was
overrun by the Huna by 500. The empire disintegrated under the attacks
of Toramana and his successor Mihirakula. Budhagupta had close ties with
the rulers of Kannauj kingdom. He asked help of Kannauj ruler
Yashovarman and together with Narasimhagupta Baladitya, they sought to
rule the Huns out of the fertile plains of Northern India.
Chandragupta III......................................c. 495 - c. 500
Vainyagupta...........................................c. 500 - c. 510
Narasimhagupta Baladitya S/o Skandagupta..............c. 510 - c. 540
Kumaragupta III.......................................c. 540 - c. 550
The Indian numerals which is the first
positional base 10 numeral systems in the world have originated from
Gupta India. Kama Sutra the ancient Gupta text is widely considered to
be the standard work on human sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature
written by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana. These ideas spread throughout
the world through trade. The Gupta reign was certainly the "Golden Age"
of north India. Scholars of this period include Aryabhatta, who is
believed to be the first to come up with the concept of zero, postulated
the theory that the Earth moves round the Sun, and studied solar and
lunar eclipses. Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, who wrote plays
such as Shakuntala, which is said to have inspired Goethe, and marked
the highest point of Sanskrit literature is also said to have belonged
to this period.
He was a Hindu in earlier life, became a
Buddhist later, emperor who ruled Northern India for forty one years. He
was the son of Prabhakar Vardhan and younger brother of Rajyavardhan, a
king of Thanesar. At the height of his power his kingdom spanned the
Punjab, Gujarat, Bengal, Orissa and the entire Indo-Gangetic plain North
of the Narmada River. After the downfall of the Gupta Empire in the
middle of the sixth century C.E., North India reverted to small
republics and small monarchical states. Harsha united the small
republics from Punjab to Central India, and they, at an assembly,
crowned Harsha king in April 606 AD when he was just very young.
Nagabhata I replaced Harshavardhana as king when The Pratiharas (also
called the Gurjara-Pratiharas) took over western India from the
Pushpabhuti empire. The Pratiharas were an Indian dynasty who ruled
kingdoms in Rajasthan and northern India from the sixth to the eleventh
centuries.
Once more, the
Empire crumbled, and was replaced by lesser states. The era between about
500 CE and about 1200 CE is dominated by three contending powers, the
Pratiharas (west), the Rastrakutas (east), and the Palas (south). Around
these, a host of minor states arose, endured for a time and faded.
PRATIHARA
The Pratiharas came to power in western India
and, from their capital at Kannauj, dominated western and northern India
for centuries, before being overwhelmed in turn by the Ghurids of
central Asia.
This era saw
the emergence of Muslim influence in India, extending into the region from
beyond the Indus River. The next large state to hold sway was, in fact, a
Muslim one: the Sultanate of Delhi in the north.
NORTHERN INDIA
The Northern portion mainly Delhi was ruled by
local dynasties like Tomara from 736 to 1152 and then Chauhan (Cahamana)
from c. 1150 to 1192. Silver Drachm coins are known from Tomara and
Chauhan dynasties.
SULTANATE OF DELHI
Muhammad Shahab ud-Din
[or simply Muhammad Ghori] of Ghurid Empire (capital at Ghazna,
Afghanistan) attacked the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent many
times. The first time he was defeated in the First Battle of Tarain in
present-day Haryana, India by Prithviraj III Chauhan. Later
under his command, Qutb-ud-din Aibeg sacked
Delhi in 1192. Muhammad
Ghori established the first real Muslim state in North India. Upon
Sultan Muhammad Ghori's death in 1206, Qutb-ud-din Aibeg, after a brief
power struggle, succeeded in establishing himself as ruler of the empire
in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern India; Ghori's Central Asian
possessions had been captured by none other than the Mongol warlord,
Genghis Khan.
GHULYAM (Slaves)
or also knowm as Mumluk Dynasty
Qutb ud-Din Aibeg ibn Mu'izz............................1206 - 1210
Qutb-ud-din was a slave and was purchased
by General Muhammad Ghori governor of Ghazni in the past. Inspired
by the Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan and wishing to surpass it, Qutb
ud-din Aibeg, commenced construction of the Qutb Minar in Delhi in
1193, but could only complete its base. His successor, Iltutmish,
added three more stories and, in 1386, Firuz Shah Tughluq
constructed the fifth and the last story. Qutb-ud-din Aibeg's tomb
is located behind Anarkali Bazaar, Lahore.
Aram Shah S/o Qutb ud-Din...............................1210 - 1211
According to some, he was Aibak's son, but
Minhaj-us-Siraj distinctly writes that Qutub-ud-din only had three
daughters. Abul Fazl has made the "astonishing statement" that he was
the Sultan's brother. A modern writer has hazarded the opinion that "he
was no relation of Qutub-ud-din" but was selected as his successor as he
was available on the spot. In fact, there were no fixed rules governing
the succession to the Crown in the Turkish State.
He was the slave of Qutb ud-Din Aibeg and
later married to one of his daughter. He was Governor of Badaun and was
called by administrative and military elite to defeated Aram in the
plain of Jud near Delhi in 1211.
Rukn ud-Din Firuz Shah S/o Shams ud-Din Iltutmish...May 1236
- 09 Nov 1236
Rukn ud-din's reign was short. With
Iltutmish's widow Shah Turkaan for all practical purposes running the
government, Rukn ud-din abandoned himself to the pursuit of personal
pleasure and debauchery, to the considerable outrage of the citizenry.
On November 9, 1236, both Rukn ud-Din and his mother Shah Turkaan were
assassinated.
Mu'izz ad-Din Bahram Shah S/o Shams ud-Din Iltutmish....1240 - 1242
Ala ud-Din Masud Shah S/o Rukn ud-Din Firuz.............1242 - 1246
Nasir ud-Din Mahmud S/o Shams ud-Din Iltutmish..........1246 - 1266
As a ruler, he was known to be very religious,
spending most of his time in prayer and renown for aiding the poor and
the distressed. However, it was actually his Deputy Sultan or Naib,
Ghiyas ud din Balban, who primarily dealt with the state affairs. After
Mahmud's death in 1266, Balban rose to power as Mahmud had no children
to be his heir.
Bughra Khan, Balban's second son, refused the
throne as he was already the governor of Bengal. Eventually, Balban
chose his grandson, Kay Khusroe, to be his successor. However, when
Balban died, the chiefs chose for Mu'izz ud-Din Kai-Kubad to become
ruler instead. Throughout his reign, Mu'izz ud-Din Kai-Kubad (being
still young at the time) ignored all state affairs. After four years, he
suffered from a paralytic stroke and was later on murdered in 1290 by a
Khilji chief. His three year old son, Kaiumarth (Kayumars), succeeded
him.
Kaiumarth' guardian, Jalal ud din Firuz Khilji,
eventually dethrone Kaiumarth and declared himself king, thus bringing
an end to the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi.
He built his capital at Kilughari, a few miles
from the city of Delhi. Ala-ud-din was also responsible for a successful
raid in to Deccan as Governor of Kara under his uncle. While Ala ud-Din
was returning from there with the spoils of victory, Jalal-ud-Din Firuz
hurried to Kara to meet him. Eventually Jalal-ud-Din Firuz was murdered
by his nephew, Ala ud-Din.
Rukn ud-Din Ibrahim Shah S/o Jalal ud-Din Firuz...............1296
Malika Jahan, the widow of Jalal-ud-Din Firuz,
put her younger son Rukn ud-Din Khilji on the throne. Ala ud-Din quickly
marched on Delhi from Kara. He entered Delhi with his uncle's head on a
pike and proclaimed himself the King of Delhi.
Ala ud-Din Muhammad Shah I......................03
Oct 1296 - Jan 1316
Ala ud-Din is also noted in history for being
one of the few rulers to repeatedly defeat the warring Mongols and
thereby saving India from plundering raids and attacks. He was the
nephew and son in law of Jalal-ud-Din Firuz Shah. The last Mongol
invasion took place in 1307-1308 under Iqbalmand. He had just about
managed to cross the Indus when Ala ud-Din Khilji’s armies overtook them
and put them all to the sword. But he did not stop there, Ala-ud-Din
Khilji had to be sure that the Mongols would never come back. The only
way to do that was to attack them, he sent plundering armies under the
veteran general Ghazi Malik to Kandahar, Ghazni and Kabul. The Mongols
were already so much in awe of him that they did not even bother to
defend their own territories against him. These offensives effectively
crippled the Mongol line of control leading to India until the arrival
of Timur Lane. About the close of his reign Ala ud-Din Khilji had
prepared an expedition of 10,000 men under Ghazi Malik (later Ghiyath ud-Din
Tughluq) to go to Debalpur to fight with the Chagatai Khanate Mongols.
Ghazi Malik was thus enabled to go and secure Multan, Uch and Sindh for
himself, especially as Ala ud-Dín’s sons proved incapable and caused
confusion in the affairs of the kingdom.
Shihab ud-Din Umar S/o Ala ud-Din..............................1316
Qutb ud-Din Mubarrak Shah I S/o Ala ud-Din..............1316 - 1320
Qutb ud-Din, at the age of 18, was originally
appointed regent to his younger six-year old brother, Shihab ud-Din Umar.
Within two months, Qutb ud-Din blinded his brother and ascended the
throne. Qutb ud-Din was murdered by Khusrau Khan in 1320, this
effectively ended the Khilji dynasty. Khusrau Khan was a Hindu slave of
the Makwana sect in Gujarat who resented his forcible conversion to
Islam.
Nasir ud-Din Khusrau Khan Barwari the Usurper..................1320
He began to bestow undue favors on mischievous
people and wasted public money. The Hindus began to join him in large
number. Seeing this state of things, Ghazi Malik’s son Fakhr Malik left
Multan secretly and joined his father, informing him of what was
happening at Delhi. Then, father and son, being both brave soldiers,
collected the forces from Sindh and Multan and hastened to Delhi to help
the Muslims against the Hindus. Arriving near Delhi with 3,000 veteran
soldiers, they engaged in battle with the army of Khusrau Khan, and
defeated them. Then making their way into Delhi they again defeated
Khusrau Khan in battle and he fled away.
TUGHLUQID
Tughluq Shah I [Ghazi Malik]...........................1320 -
Feb 1325
Muhammad Shah II [Fakhr Malik] S/o Tughluq
Shah........1325 - 20 Mar 1351
He is also known as Prince Fakhr Malik, Jauna
Khan and Ulugh Khan. Muhammad Tughlug was a scholar versed in logic,
philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and physical sciences. He had
knowledge of medicine and was skillful in dialectics. He was also a
calligrapher. Muhammad bin Tughluq is known for his active interest in
experimenting with coinage. He memorialized himself and his activities
through his coinage and produced more gold coins than had his
predecessors. The coins boasted fine calligraphy. He issued a number of
fractional denominations. The large influx of gold from his plundering
of south Indian campaign led him to increase coinage weights. He
enlarged the gold dinar from 172 grains to 202 grains. He introduced a
silver coin, the adlis, which was discontinued after seven years due to
lack of popularity and acceptance among his subjects. All his coins
reflect a staunch religiosity, with such inscriptions as "The warrior in
the cause of God", "The trustier in support of the four Khalifs -
Abubakkar, Umar, Usman and Ali". The kalimah appeared in most of his
coinage. Both at Delhi and at Daulatabad coins were minted in memory of
his late father. There were also mints at Lakhnauti, Salgaun, Darul-I-Islam,
Sultanpur (Warrangal), Tughlaqpur (Tirhut), and Mulk-I-Tilang. More than
thirty varieties of billion coins are known so far, and the types show
his numismatic interests. Tughluq had two scalable versions, issued in
Delhi and Daulatabad. The currency obeyed two different standards,
probably to satisfy the local standard which preexisted in the North and
in the South respectively. Tughluq's skill in forcing the two standards
of currency is remarkable. He engraved "He who obeys the Sultan obeys
the compassionate" to fascinate people in accepting the new coinage.
Inscriptions were even engraved in the Nagari legend, but owing to the
alloy used, the coinage underwent deterioration. As well, the copper and
brass coins could easily be forged, turning every house into a mint.
Tughluq subsequently withdrew the forged currency by exchanging it with
bulls and gold.
Mahmud ibn Muhammad..........................................a few days in Mar. 1351
Firuz Shah S/o Razzab.................................1351 -
20 Sep 1388
His father's name was Razzab (the younger
brother of Ghazi Malik). Firuz Shah Tughlaq succeeded his cousin
Muhammad bin Tughluq following the later's death from a fatal illness,
but due to widespread unrest Firuz's realm was much smaller than
Muhammed's. Firuz Shah Tughlaq was forced by rebellions to concede
virtual independence to Bengal and other provinces. He was known as an
iconoclast. In the 1350s, he established the city of Firozabad at the
site of the Feroz Shah Kotla (Literally fortress or citadel of Firoz
Shah). Most of the city was destroyed as subsequent rulers dismantled
its buildings and reused the spolia as building materials.
Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq Shah
II........................1388 - 14 Mar 1389
He succeeded Firuz Shah Tughluq, immediately
after his death. However, Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq II was not a capable
ruler, and failed to successfully manage and control his empire. He was
eventually murdered on March 14, 1389 and succeeded by Abu Baker. Even
so, none of the successors were strong leaders, and the Tughlaq Dynasty
eventually came to its end in 1398.
Abu Bakr Shah S/o Firuz Shah........................1389 - 1390
However, his brother, Nasir ud din Muhammad
Shah III, also desired to be ruler, and struggled against Abu Baker over
the control of the throne. Eventually Abu Baker was defeated, and Nasir
ud din Muhammad Shah III succeeded him as king.
Muhammad Shah III S/o Firuz Shah....................1390 - 1393
Sikander Shah
I......................................Mar - Apr. 1393
Mahmud Shah II................................1393-1394/5
Ibrahim II....................................1517-1526
SOUTHERN INDIA
The southern portion of the subcontinent has
often followed a different course of development than the center and
north. Here the non-Aryan Dravidians retreated, and here have been the
loci of several large and powerful states. Currently, this listing
memorializes the last two.
PALLAVA EMPIRE
Pallavas rose in power during the reign of
Mahendravarman I (c.600 – 630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630 – 668 CE)
and dominated the Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region for
about six hundred years until the end of the 9th century. Throughout
their reign they were in constant conflict with both Chalukyas of Badami
in the north and the Tamil kingdoms of Chola and Pandyas in the south
and were finally defeated by the Chola kings in the 8th century CE.
Simhavarman
I.........................................c. 315 - c. 345
Skandavarman
I........................................c. 345 - c. 355 with...
Vishnugopa............................................c.
350 - c. 355
Kumaravishnu
I........................................c. 355 - c. 370
Skandavarman
II.......................................c. 370 - c. 385
Viravarman............................................c.
385 - c. 400
Skandavarman
III......................................c. 400 - c. 438
Simhavarman
II........................................c. 438 - c. 460
Skandavarman
IV.......................................c. 460 - c. 480
Nandivarman
I.........................................c. 480 - c. 500
Kumaravishnu
II.......................................c. 500 - c. 520
Buddhavarman..........................................c.
520 - c. 540
Kumaravishnu
III......................................c. 540 - c. 550
Simhavarman
III.......................................c. 550 - c. 574
Simhavishnu [Avanisimha] S/o Simhavarman
III..........c.
574 - c. 600
He was the first Pallava monarch whose domain
extended beyond Kanchipuram (Kanchi) in the South.
Mahendravarman
I S/o Simhavishnu......................c. 600 - 630
Narasimhavarman
I S/o Mahendravarman I...................630 - 668
He avenged his father's defeat at the hands of
the Chalukya king, Pulakesi II in the year 642 CE. He destroyed the
Chalukya capital at Vatapi. Narasimhavarman was also known as Mamallan
(great wrestler) and Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) was named after him.
Narasimhavarman I is claimed to be one of the Seven Indian kings who
never lost on the battlefield to their enemies, the others being
Karikala Chola of the Sangam age, Samudragupta, Chandragupta Maurya,
Ashoka, Rajaraja Chola I, his great warrior son Rajendra Chola.
Mahendravarman
II S/o Narasimhavarman
I..................668 - 670
Paramesvaravarman
I S/o Mahendravarman
II................670 - 680
Parameswaravarman was an efficient and capable
ruler, known for his military exploits, his love for poetry and his
devotion to Siva, to whom he erected many temples.
Narasimhavarman
II [Rajasimha] S/o Paramesvaravarman
I...680 - 720
Rajasimha's reign was marked by peace and
prosperity, and he constructed several beautiful temples. Rajasimha's
had two sons - Mahendravarman III and Paramesvaravarman II. However,
Mahendravarman III predeceased his father and Paramesvaravarman II
succeeded to the throne.
Paramesvaravarman
II S/o Narasimhavarman
II..............720 - 731
Parameswaravarman died without any heir and
hence the Pallava empire was kingless.
Nandivarman
II [Pallavamalla]............................731 - 795
Nandivarman was an intellectual with aptitude
in many arts like writing, poetry, music and philosophy. He is known for
his good looks and liking for training in gymnastics. Nandivarman then
only 13 years old was not equipped physically and mentally to command an
army and thereby the naturally imperialist pallavas for the first time
in their illustrious history beat a tactical retreat. This however did
not have a serious consequence and the pallava territories were never in
any danger.
The Eastern Chalukyas who had taken an
antagonistic stand against the Rashtrakutas again had to face the wrath
of Govinda III, who defeated Chalukya Vijayaditya II and installed Bhima
Salki as its ruler. He further defeated the king of Kaushal (Kosala) and
occupied parts of Andhra and defeated Pallava Dantivarman in 803 at
Kanchi. Govinda III even obtained the submission of the King of Ceylon
without even going to battle. Govinda III died in 814. Govinda III
brother Indra during this time founded the Gujarat (Lata) branch
kingdom.
During the invasion of the Chola country, the
Pandya king Varagunavarman II became an ally of Nripatunga, the eldest
son of the Pallava king Nandivarman III. When Nandivarman died in 869,
differences arose between Nripatungavarman and his stepbrother Aparajita,
probably owing to the latter’s ambition to rule the kingdom on his own
right.
Both sides looked for allies. Nripatungavarman
continued to have Varaguna Pandya by his side while Aparajita allied
with the Ganga king Prithvipathi I and with Aditya Chola I. King
Vijayalaya who understood that the Cholas would never be able to regain
the kingdom if they lost this war somehow heard of this and arrived at
the battlefield. He was 90 years old, had two hands, one leg and one
eye. Aditya (son of Vijayalaya), Aparajita and the generals under
Vijayalaya attack the Pandya army and this time there is no stopping
them. Although the victor of the Sripurambiyam battle was Aparajita, the
real gains went to Aditya I Chola. During 903 C.E., the 32nd year of his
reign, Aditya I Chola, not satisfied with his subordinate position,
planned and carried out an attack on his erstwhile overlord, the Pallava
king Aparajita. In the battle that ensued, Aditya pounced upon Aparajita
when he was mounted on an elephant and killed him. That spelt the end of
the Pallava rule in Tondaimandalam (north Tamil Nadu) and the whole of
the Pallava kingdom now became Chola territory. This spelt the effective
end of the once great Pallava empire in the history of South India.
CHOLA EMPIRE
Vijayalaya............................................c.
846 - c. 871
Vijayalaya was the Chola king of South India
who captured Thanjavur during c. 846 C.E. and re-established the Chola
dynastic rule. Thanjavur became the capital of this empire.
Aditya I S/o Vijayalaya...............................c.
871 - 907
He extended the Chola dominions by the
conquest of the Pallavas.
Parantaka I S/o Aditya
I.................................907 - 947
Parantaka continuing the expansion started by
his father, invaded the Pandya kingdom in 910. He captured the Pandyan
capital Madurai and assumed the title Madurain-konda (Capturer of
Madurai). The Pandyan ruler Maravarman Rajasinha II sought the help of
Kassapa V, the king of Sri Lanka, who sent an army to his aid. Parantaka
defeated the combined army at the battle of Vellore. The Pandya king
fled into exile in Sri Lanka and Parantaka completed his conquest of the
entire Pandya country. Besides Rajaditya and Arinjaya, Parantaka had
three more sons: Gandaraditya, Arikulakesari and Uttamasili. He had at
least two daughters: Viramadevi and Anupama. Uttamasili does not appear
to have lived long enough to succeed to the Chola throne.
Rajaditya I S/o Parantaka
I..............................947 - 949
Parantaka II [Sundara Chola] S/o Arinjaya......................956
Parantaka II ascended the Chola throne despite
the fact that Uttama Chola, the son of Gandaraditya, (the elder brother
of Arinjaya) was alive and he had equal if not more claim to the Chola
throne.
Aditya II [Aditya Karikalan] S/o Parantaka
II............956 - 969
He was the eldest son of Parantaka II and the
brother of Rajaraja Chola I.
Rajaraja I Deva the Great S/o Parantaka
II...............985 - 1012
He was born as Arulmozhi Cholan (also called
as Periya Udayar). One of the greatest emperors of the Tamil
Chola Empire and India, who ruled between 985 and 1012 CE. He
established the Chola empire by conquering the kingdoms of southern
India expanding the Chola Empire as far as Sri Lanka in the south and Kalinga (Orissa) in the northeast. His Bronze Starter, Silver Kahavanu
and Gold Kahavanu coins are well known in numismatic world.
Rajendra I Choladeva S/o Rajaraja I Deva................1012
- 1044
During his reign, he extended the influences
of the already vast Chola empire up to the banks of the river Ganges in
the north and across the ocean. Rajendra’s territories extended coastal
Burma, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Maldives, conquered
the kings of Srivijaya (Sumatra, Java and Malaya in South East Asia) and
Pegu islands with his fleet of ships. He defeated Mahipala, the Pala
king of Bengal and Bihar, and to commemorate his victory he built a new
capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
Rajadhiraja I S/o Rajendra
I............................1044 - 1052
He maintained the Chola authority over most of
Lanka, Vengi, Kalinga and the relations with overseas domains despite a
series of revolts in the territory. He had fought a protracted battle
with the Chalukyas during which he lost his own life.
Rajendra II Deva S/o Rajendra
I.........................1052 - 1060
Rajendra II, who had been nominated by his
elder brother Rajadhiraja Chola I as heir apparent over his own
children, proclaimed himself king on the Koppam battlefield after his
victory. Rajendra then pressed on his army up to Kolapur, in modern
Maharashtra, where he planted a pillar of victory and returned to
Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
His reign was marked by civil unrest, possibly
religious in nature, in which he was killed. With the death of
Athirajendra Chola, the Chola dynasty of Vijayalaya Chola came to an end
and rulers after him were known as Later Cholas. The Chalukya Chola
prince Rajendra succeeded him as Kulottunga Chola I.
Kulottunga I [Rajendra
III].............................1070 - 1122
He was son Rajaraja Narendra (Chalukya). The
Chola kingdom was at its greatest extent under Kulottunga I in his
forty-fifth reignal year. Except for the loose hold over Lanka, the rest
of the empire remained intact.
Vikrama Chola S/o Kulottunga
I..........................1122 - 1135
During his reign the Chola country
suffered from severe floods and the resultant draught.
Most of the northeastern provinces were affected by this
calamity. Vikrama Chola made his heir apparent and
coregent in 1133. Therefore the inscriptions of
Kulottunga II count his reign from 1133.
Kulottunga II Chola S/o Vikrama Chola...................1135
- 1150
Kulottunga II reigned over a period of general
peace and good governance. There is no record of any warfare except for
the consolidation of the Chola control over the northern Vengi
territories, which had been won by his father Vikrama Chola by routing
the Western Chalukyas.
Rajraja II S/o Kulottunga
II............................1150 - 1173
The extent of the Chola territories remained
as they were during Rajaraja's predecessors. The Vengi country was still
firmly under the Chola rule. However the feudatory Telugu Chola
chieftains of Velanadu began to assert their independence more and more.
He reigned as the Chola king succeeding
Rajaraja Chola II. He was not the direct descendant of Rajaraja Chola
II, but a grandson of Vikrama Chola by his daughter. Rajaraja Chola II
chose Rajadhiraja as his heir as he did not have any sons of his own.
Soon after the installation of Rajadhiraja II, a fierce succession
dispute in the Pandya country led to the intervention of the Chola and
the Sinhalese rulers on opposite sides which brought misery to both. Out
of the ashes of this civil war arose the Pandya power which in its
renewed strength soon swallowed both the Chola and Sinhalese kingdoms.
The inscriptions of Kulottunga show that his
rule commenced around July 8, 1178 CE. Kulottunga was recognised as the
next sovereign even before the death of his predecessor Rajadhiraja
Chola II. Kulottunga III did not belong to the direct line of the
Cholas. His long reign was marked by Kulottunga's abilities to bring
order in the besieged kingdom and by his successes in reversing the
growing weakness. However towards the end of his reign, the Pandya
Maravarman Sundara Pandya defeated Kulottunga and made the Chola
subordinate to Pandya rule, thus marking the beginning of the final
demise of the Cholas. Kulottunga III is also renowned for his patronage
of art and literature. He is credited with the building of numerous
temples and continued to rule till 1218.
He succeeded Kulottunga Chola III on the Chola
throne in July 1216 CE. Rajaraja came to the throne of a kingdom much
reduced in size as well as influence. With the rise of the Pandya power
in the south, the Cholas had lost most of their control of the
territories south of the river Kaveri and their hold on the Vengi
territories in the north was slipping with the emergence of the Hoysala
power. Rajaraja III however continued to live until 1260.
Rajendra IV S/o Rajaraja
III............................1246 - 1279
He came to the Chola throne in 1246 CE.
Although his father Rajaraja III was still alive, Rajendra began to take
effective control over the administration. Rajendra was a much abler
king than his father and tried to stop the rapid decline the Chola
kingdom was experiencing due to the incompetence of Rajaraja III. In the
end these efforts were in vain, mainly due to the cunning shift in
policy of the Hoysalas, and the struggling kingdom could not withstand
the vigour of the Pandyas and was eventually absorbed within the Pandyan
kingdom. Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan, who ascended the throne in 1251 was
first concentrating on the Chola-Hoysala wars, and once he had control
of Uraiyur and Thanjavur, he promptly won back Kanchi from Ganapati and
Gandagopala in 1258 and restored Kanchi to Kopperinchungan-II. However,
the Kadava Pallava Kopperinjungan II was followed by very weak
successors and Jatavarman annexed Kanchi, Nellore and Visayavadai
(modern Vijayawada) regions to the Pandiyan Kingdom. This was followed
by an expedition personally led by Jatavarman along with Vira Pandiyan
to Kalinga and resulted in both Kalinga and Vengi coming under the
Pandiyan control. However, the Pandyas also faced hostility from the
Hoysalas during this period, and were unable to completely control Chola
territory as a result. Chola also disrupted by defeat at the hands of the
Delhi Sultanate. Portions of the state annexed to Delhi, while other
areas fall into the hands of provincial rulers. Eventually, Vijayanagar
("City of Victory") emerges as the chief center of independent Hindu
resistance to Muslim control of most of India.
VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
Following the disruption of the Karnataka
state, a second power emerged in southern India under the Sangamas -
Vijayanagar. This empire was a dominating force in the region from c.
1375 to 1565. Copper jital Bull type, Bronze kasu Madurai, Silver tara
(2.5 rattis), Silver 10-rattis and Gold Pagoda are well known coin
denominations of this dynasty.
Venkatapati Raya [Peda Venkata].........................1632
- 1642
On 22 August 1639 Francis Day of the East
India Company obtained a small strip of Land in the Coramandal Coast
from him in Chandragiri as a place to build a factory and warehouse for
their trading activities.
Sriranga III Raya.......................................1642
- 1646
In 1646 Sriranga III collected a large army
with help from Mysore, Gingee and Tanjore and met the Golkonda forces.
The Muslim forces were losing, but later advanced, when consolidated by
additional armies from Deccan. The war went on till 1652. Sriranga III
spent his last years under support of one of his vassal chieftains,
Shivappa Nayaka of Ikkeri, and was still hoping to retrieve Vellore from
the Muslim forces. Thirumalai Nayak's treachery to Sriranga III made the
Mysore ruler Kanthirava Narasa wage a series of ravaging wars with
Madurai, later capturing the territories of Coimbatore and Salem,
regions which were retained by Mysore till 1800. The Mysore ruler
Kanthirava Narasa still recognised Sriranga as a namesake emperor.
Sriranga died in the late 1670s as an emperor without an empire, putting
an end to over three centuries of Vijayanagara rule in India.
Venkatapati II Raya.....................................1646
- c. 1660
By the 1640's, Vijayanagar had all but
vanished entirely, it's territories absorbed by to a large extent by the
Kingdom of Mysore, as well as Hyderabad and the Mughal Empire. The
capital was seized by the Sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda in 1646,
though a last shadowy Viyanagaran king seems to have held on to some
fragment of territory through the 1650's. By the 18th century, southern
India had fragmented completely into local states alongside various
European colonies, especially at Goa (Portuguese) and Pondicherry
(French). After 1757, British influence was paramount, and the region
followed general Indian history from then on.
3300 BC - 1700 BC
Indus Valley Civilization.
1700 Bc - 1300 BC Late
Harappan Culture.
1500 BC - 500 BC
Vedic Civilization.
1200 BC - 316 BC
Kuru dynasty.
700 BC - 321 BC
Maha Janapadas
684 BC - 321 BC
Madadha Empire
321 Bc - 85 BC
Mauryan Empire
c.240 - 550 AD
Gupta Empire
848 - 1279
Chola Empire (in the south).
1022 - 1346 Hoysala Empire (in the south).
1210 - 19 Apr 1526 Delhi
Sultanate (in the north).
1347 - 1518
Bahmani Sultanate (in the south).
1336 - 23 Jan 1565 Vijayanagara
Empire (in the south).
27 May 1526 Babur founds the Empire of Hind (usually referred to by
historians as the Mughal [Moghul] Empire).
17 May 1540 The Mughal rulers are expelled and superseded by the Afghan
Suri dynasty.
23 Jul 1555 Empire of Hind under the Mughal rulers restored.
18 Feb 1665 Bombay ceded to England by Portugal.
c.1690 Calcutta founded by England.
12 Aug 1765 British take over administration of Bengal (under British
East India Company rule).
20 Oct 1774 Union of all East India Company settlements.
29 Mar 1858 The last Mughal ruler is deposed.
02 Aug 1858 British Act of Parliament annexes the Empire, creating
British India (effective 1 Nov 1858).
28 Apr 1876 By proclamation, the Queen of Britain takes the style
"Empress of India" (proclaimed in India on 1 Jan 1877).
Mar 1942 - Aug 1945 Japanese occupy
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
21 Oct 1943 - 18 Aug 1945 Provisional Government of Free India
proclaimed
(Arzi Hukumate-e-Azad Hind) at Singapore (administering the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands only Dec 1943-Aug 1945).
25 Aug 1946 India granted limited self rule.
15 Aug 1947 British India, together with acceded states, is partitioned
into Dominion of India and
Dominion of Pakistan; style
"Emperor of India"
is abandoned (retroactive proclamation
that
is dated 22 Jun 1948).
27 Oct 1947 Jammu and Kashmir accede to India.
17 Sep 1948 Hyderabad annexed by India.
26 Jan 1950 Republic of India, styled "India, that
is Bharat."
01 Nov 1954 French India incorporated into India.
26 Jan 1957 The incorporation of Jammu and Kashmir is declared completed.
16 Mar 1962 Goa annexed by India.
21 Nov 1962 China occupies Aksai Chin region of Kashmir.
26 Apr 1975 Annexation of Sikkim.
For earlier
coinage of India, refer to the links below on various princely states,
having coins in my collection.
Coins of India can be viewed by clicking on the links
below, sorted yearly according to respective ruler.
HANOVER (WELF)
Victoria
(female)................................01
Nov 1858 - 22 Jan 1901
WITTIN
or SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA(WINDSON after 1917)
Edward
VII.......................................22 Jan 1901 - 06 May 1910
Geroge
V.........................................06 May 1910 - 20 Jan 1936
Edward
VIII......................................20 Jan 1936 - 12 Dec 1936
George
VI........................................12 Dec 1936 - 15 Aug 1947
Governor-General
(representing the British monarch as head of state)
Louis Francis Mountbatten........................15 Aug 1947 - 21 Jun 1948
He is also known as Earl
Mountbatten of Burma.
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari......................21 Jun 1948 - 26 Jan 1950
He was an Indian lawyer, freedom-fighter, politician,
writer, statesman and leader of the Indian National Congress who served as the
last Governor-General of India. He served as the Chief Minister or Premier of
the Madras Presidency, Governor of West Bengal, Minister for Home Affairs of the
Indian Union and Chief Minister of Madras state. He was the founder of the
Swatantra Party and the first recipient of India's highest civilian award, the
Bharat Ratna.
President
Rajendra Prasad..................................26 Jan 1950
- 13 May 1962
India became as Republic on 26 Jan
1950.
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari......................21 Jun 1948 - 26 Jan 1950
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari......................21 Jun 1948 - 26 Jan 1950
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari......................21 Jun 1948 - 26 Jan 1950
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari......................21 Jun 1948 - 26 Jan 1950
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari......................21 Jun 1948 - 26 Jan 1950
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari......................21 Jun 1948 - 26 Jan 1950
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari......................21 Jun 1948 - 26 Jan 1950
